M 


LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


OK 


Received 
Accession  No. 


Class  No. 


F> 

-"IITT' 


A  GUIDE 

TO 

SYSTEMATIC  READINGS 

IN  THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  BRITANNICA 

NEW  AND  REVISED  EDITION 


BY  ^ 

JAMcS  BALDWIN,  PH.D. 

Author  of"  The  Book  Lover"  "  The  Book  of  Elegies  " 
"  Tt^  Story  of  Siegfried,"  etc. 
B^L  T  rr  « 

U  a  1  V  «  x'    *  A  J 

OJP    -rlV^F 


THE  WERNER  COMPANY 

CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 

1897 


COPYRIGHT,  1895,  BY 
THE  WERNER  COMPANY 

COPYRIGHT,  1897,  BY 
THE  WERNER  COMPANY 


PREFACE. 

ALTHOUGH  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  has  long  been 
recognized  as  the  greatest  of  reference  works,  and  al- 
though its  possessors  may  have  never  consulted  it  without 
complete  satisfaction,  yet  its  full  value  has  seldom  been 
recognized.  It  has  usually  been  regarded  simply  as  a  re- 
pository of  general  information,  to  be  kept  ready  at  hand 
for  consultation  as  occasion  should  demand.  But  while 
this  is  the  ordinary  use  of  the  Britannica,  it  has  been 
found  that  it  possesses  a  broader  function,  and  that  it  may 
be  utilized  in  such  manner  as  to  perform  the  office  of  a 
great  educational  agent.  The  Britannica  is  a  work  of 
reference,  and  much  more  :  it  is  a  collection  of  all  histo- 
ries, all  biographies,  all  arts,  all  literatures,  and  all  scien- 
tific, professional,  and  mechanical  knowledge ;  but  on 
account  of  its  comprehensiveness,  extending  as  it  does 
through  so  many  large  volumes,  it  presents  such  an  "  em- 
barrassment of  riches  "  that  those  who  consult  it  fail  some- 
times to  discover  all  that  is  suited  to  their  individual 
needs.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  if  each  reader  and 
patron  of  this  great  library  can  have  a  guide  to  point  out 
to  him,  according  to  his  vocation,  the  parts  that  are  the 
most  helpful  to  him,  he  will  be  able  to  systematize  his 
reading  or  his  investigations ;  and  thus,  while  economizing 

3 


4  PREFACE. 

both  time  and  labor,  reach  the  highest  results.  The  pres- 
ent volume  has  been  prepared  for  that  purpose ;  and  it  is 
believed  that,  recognizing  its  helpfulness,  the  many  thou- 
sand owners  of  the  Britannica  will  welcome  it  as  an  inval- 
uable addition  to  their  libraries.  The  plan  has  been  to 
direct  each  individual  how  to  draw  from  this  great  store- 
house of  knowledge  that  which  will  cover  with  all  desirable 
completeness  the  line  of  work  in  which  he  is  most  inter- 
ested, thus  assisting  him  in  the  knowledge  of  his  particular 
business,  and  aiding  him  in  its  prosecution. 

It  being  recognized  that  the  Britannica  contains  a  great 
deal  of  interesting  and  profitable  matter  for  boys  and  girls, 
the  first  part  of  this  GUIDE  is  directed  to  young  people. 
By  the  aid  of  brief  but  graphic  text  and  copious  references, 
the  youth  is  led  along  pleasant  avenues  of  research,  and 
thus  aided  in  acquiring  a  habit  of  reading  and  of  investi- 
gation that  will  continue  through  life,  and  add  largely  to 
his  chances  of  success. 

The  second  part  is  especially  designed  for  students. 
The  scholar  who  is  desirous  of  some  means  whereby  to 
supplement  the  work  of  the  school  or  the  college,  will  find 
here  the  very  thing  that  he  is  seeking.  The  earnest,  am- 
bitious young  man  or  young  woman  who  is  being  self-edu- 
cated, because  unable  to  secure  the  aid  of  instructors,  will 
find  here  a  teacher  that  will  point  the  way  to  the  acquire- 
ment of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  almost  every  branch  of 
science  or  art.  Numerous  courses  of  study  are  outlined, 
which  may  be  pursued  independent  of  schools ;  many 
profitable  lines  of  research  are  suggested,  and  the  best 


PREFACE.  5 

ways  of  obtaining  a  fund  of  general  information  are 
pointed  out. 

The  fact  that  fifty-two  text-books  used  in  our  leading 
colleges  and  universities  have  been  drawn  from  the  Britan- 
nica  emphasizes  itb  value  to  students. 

Through  our  excellent  system  of  common  schools,  every 
boy  or  girl  in  the  land  is  furnished  with  the  rudiments  of 
an  education.  But  in  the  school,  the  child  is  only  started 
on  the  way ;  the  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  provide  him 
with  a  few  essentials,  and  give  him  some  slight  impetus 
that  will  keep  him  moving  on  in  the  right  direction.  If 
he  continues  his  studies  beyond  the  public  schools,  he  may 
be  conducted  a  little  farther  —  but  it  is  only  a  little.  No 
one's  education  was  ever  finished  in  a  university.  We  are 
all,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  self-educated.  A  great 
deal  of  what  the  schools  have  foisted  on  us  as  knowledge 
has  proved  to  be  worthless  to  us,  and  is  allowed  to  drop 
from  our  minds  as  soon  as  we  are  left  to  ourselves.  The 
better  part  of  our  education  is  that  which  we  acquire 
independently — through  reading,  through  observation, 
through  intercourse  with  others — an  ever  increasing  stock 
of  what  is  called  general  information.  It  is  the  aim  of 
this  GUIDE  to  help,  not  only  students,  but  everybody  else, 
to  gather  this  information  in  an  orderly  way,  without 
unnecessary  expenditure  of  time  and  labor. 

The  third  part  of  this  volume  is  devoted  to  the  busy 
world  at  large.  Its  object  is  to  help  the  busy  man,  no 
matter  what  his  business  may  be,  to  pick  out  from  the 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  just  that  kind  of  information  that 


6  PREFACE. 

will  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  him  in  his  calling.  There 
is  hardly  a  trade,  industry,  or  profession  in  the  civilized 
world  that  is  not  noticed  somewhere  in  this  department. 
A  mere  glance  at  the  various  chapters  will  indicate  their 
practical  value. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  confidently  believed  that  the  plan  of 
using  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  as  presented  in  this 
GUIDE,  will  fill  a  gap  and  perform  an  important  service  in 
our  system  of  education.  It  should  be  a  very  material  aid, 
not  only  to  those  whose  schooldays  have  been  of  limited 
duration,  and  who  wish  to  continue  their  studies  without 
the  guidance  of-  a  teacher,  but  to  people  of  every  class 
and  condition  in  life  —  to  students,  merchants,  farmers, 
mechanics,  housekeepers,  and  professional  men  of  all  sorts. 
It  should  enable  boys,  girls,  men,  women,  and  whole  fami- 
lies to  spend  their  leisure  hours  pleasantly  and  profitably 
with  the  great  Encyclopedia,  thus  realizing  one  of  its 
most  important  aims  by  making  it  the  most  powerful  aid 
to  home  culture  or  self-education  that  the  world  has  ever 
known. 


PREFACE    TO    THE   NEW  AND  REVISED 
EDITION. 

THE  publication  of  five  new  volumes  of  supplementary 
matter  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  not  only  furnishes 
an  opportunity  for  the  revision  and  enlargement  of  this 
GUIDE,  but  renders  such  a  revision  an  absolute  necessity. 
Encouraged  by  the  flattering  reception  accorded  to  the 
first  edition  of  these  systematic  readings,  the  compiler  has 
ventured  to  extend  his  original  plan  by  the  addition  of 
twelve  new  chapters,  besides  the  insertion  of  many  hun- 
dreds of  references  not  previously  included  in  the  work. 
Some  of  the  former  readings  have  been  entirely  re-writ- 
ten, and  the  chapters  in  the  third  division  have  been 
arranged  in  more  logical  order.  It  is  believed  that,  in 
this  revised  edition  of  the  GUIDE,  there  are  but  very  few 
divisions  of  human  thought,  or  of  human  activity,  which 
have  not  received  some  attention.  An  examination  of 
the  index  at  the  end  of  the  volume  will  reveal  the  compre- 
hensive nature  of  its  contents. 

January,  1897. 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION,  .  .  .  .  .  .13 

PART  I.    THE  YOUNG  PEOPLE. 

CHAPTER 

I.     To  the  Boys  and  Girls,  .  .  .  .23 

II.     Home  Readings  in  History,  .  .  .30 

III.     Home  Readings  in  Biography,  .  .  37 

IV.     Home  Readings  in  Science,  .  .  .46 

V.     Games,  Sports,  and  Pastimes,  .  .  .50 

PART    II.      THE   STUDENT. 

VI.     Three  Courses  of  Reading  in  History,          .  .         59 

VII.     Five  Courses  of  Reading  in  the  History  of  Literature,      72 

VIII.     Readings  in  Philology  and  the  History  of  Language,      85 

IX.     Readings  in  Astronomy,         .  .  .  .90 

X.     A  General  Course  of  Reading  in  Biology,    .  .96 

XI.     Readings  in  Zoology,  .  .  .  .98 

XII.     Readings  in  Botany,  .  ...  .108 

XIII.  Readings  in  Geography,        .  .  .  .112 

XIV.  A  Brief  Course  of  Reading  in  Meteorology,  .       127 
XV.     Readings  in  Mathematics,     .             .             .  130    ' 

XVI.     Two  Courses  of  Reading  in  Physics,  .  .       135    '. 

XVII.     Readings  in  the  Study  of  Man,         .  ..  .       141 

XVIII.     Readings  in  Philosophy,        .  .  .       148 

XIX.     Readings  for  Bible  Students  ,  .  .  .156 

9 


10  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  PAGB 

XX.  Readings  in  Mythology,  Legends,  Traditions, 

and  Folk-Lore,          .  .  .  .163 

XXI.  Readings  in  the  Study  of  the  Supernatural,     .       170 

XXII.  The  Desultory  Reader's  Course,            .            .175 

PART   III.      THE   BUSY  WORLD. 

XXIII.  The  Manufacturer,           .  .            .             .181 

XXIV.  The  Mechanic,  .            .            .            .190 
XXV.  The  Machinist,                .            .            .            .       196 

XXVI.  The  Electrician.               .            .            .            .201 

XXVII.  The  Inventor,       .....       207 

XXVIII.     The  Architect 215 

XXIX.     The  Builder, 220 

XXX.  The  Engineer,      .....       224 

N   XXXI.     The  Laborer 2->8 

XXXII.  The  Farmer,         .                         .            .            .231 

XXXIII.  The  Gardener,     .  .            .            .            .240 

XXXIV.  The  Fruit-Grower 244 

XXXV.  The  Woodsman,              ....       247 

XXXVI.  The  Stock-Raiser,            .            .             .             .251 

XXXVII.  The  Miner,           .            .            .                        .      256 

XXXVIII.     The  Geologist 260 

XXXIX.  The  Seaman,       .             .            .            .            .263 

XL.  The  Railroad-Man,          .            .            .            .270 

XLI.  The  Soldier,         .            .            .                     '  .       273 

XLII.  The  American  Citizen,    .            .            .            .281 

XL1II.  The  Candidate  for  Civil  Service,            .            .       288 

XLIV.  The  Political  Economist,           .            .            .307 


CONTENTS. 


1  1 


CHAPTER 

XLV.  The  Banker  and  Financier,         . 

XLVI.  The  Merchant  and  Trader,         . 

XLVII.  The  Insurance  Agent,    . 

XLVI1I.  The  Lawyer, 

XLIX.  The  Magistrate  and  Policeman, 

L.  The  Physician,    .  .  . 

LI.  The  Apothecary,  .  . 

LII.  The  Chemist,       .  .  . 

LIII.  The  Mineralogist,  .  . 

LIV.  The  Preacher  and  Theologian, 

LV.  The  Philanthropist  and  Reformer, 

LVI.  The  Public  Speaker,       .  . 

LVII.  The  Bookman, 

LVIII.  The  Teacher,       .  . 

LIX.  The  Writer 

LX.  The  Stenographer  and  Typewriter, 

LXI.  The  Printer  and  the  Publisher, 

LXII.  The  Journalist,    .  .  . 

LXIII.  The  Artist, 

LX1V.  The  Musician,      .  .  . 

LXV.  The  Actor  and  Dramatist,          . 

LXVI.  The  Home-Maker 
Index, 


UHI7BE3ITY 


320 
326 

329 
343 
346 
356 
359 
363 
366 
381 
388 
392 

398 
410 
421 
423 
426 

429 
437 
441 
45° 
457 


. 


INTRODUCTION. 

"  IT  is  ours — this  Encyclopedia  Britannica — and  now 
how  shall  we  use  it  in  order  to  derive  the  greatest  possible 
benefit  from  it  ?  "  This  is  probably  the  question  which 
more  than  one  purchaser  of  the  Britannica  asks  himself 
as  he  removes  the  bright  new  volumes  from  their  wrap- 
pings, and  contemplates  his  lately  acquired  possession. 
Let  us  first  arrange  the  twenty-odd  books  side  by  side  on 
their  shelf,  and  take  a  look  at  the  work  as  a  whole. 

It  is  the  greatest  work  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  every- 
body says.  In  these  volumes  are  the  elements 
What  shall  Qf  a  complete  education  in  any  branch  of 
with  it?  knowledge  that  you  may  choose.  You  cannot 
mention  a  single  subject  about  which  men 
think  and  talk,  that  does  not  receive  its  share  of  attention 
somewhere  in  this  wonderful  work.  It  contains  a  rich 
fund  of  information  for  everybody,  from  the  school-boy 
or  school-girl  to  the  most  learned  philosopher.  It, is  val- 
uable alike  to  the  farmer  and  the  merchant,  to  the  me- 
chanic and  the  professional  man.  Turn  over  the  pages 
of  a  single  volume,  and  notice  the  great  variety  of  articles, 
some  necessarily  brief,  others  very  long  and  comprehen- 
sive. Notice  the  numerous  illustrations,  the  maps,  and 
the  fine  full-page  plates.  See  the  list  of  famous  specialists 
and  well-known  writers  who  have  helped  to  make  this 
volume.  Surely,  this  is  a  work  which  every  man  ought  to 
be  proud  to  own. 

But  unless  we  know  how  to  use  our  Encyclopaedia,  we 

13 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

shall  fail  to  get  from  it  as  much  benefit  as  we  might.  No 
book  is  of  value  unless  its  owner  knows  how  to  extract 
some  pleasure  or  profit  from  its  pages.  It  will  not  be  hard 
to  get  both  pleasure  and  profit  from  the  Britannica,  even 
though  we  should  allow  it  to  remain  on  its  shelf  and  con- 
sult it  only  when  we  want  to  find  the  answer  to  some 
question  that  is  asked.  Most  people  use  an  encyclopaedia 
in  that  way ;  and  many  do  not  know  that  it  was  designed 
for  any  other  purpose.  That  is  the  proper  and  only  way 
in  which  to  use  a  dictionary.  But  the  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica is  a  great  deal  more  than  a  dictionary,  and  it  is 
capable  of  imparting  more  knowledge  and  more  enjoy- 
ment than  all  the  dictionaries  in  the  world. 

In  order  that  we  may  make  the  most  of  the  rich  store- 
house of  knowledge  that  is  ours,  let  us  consult  our  GUIDE 
TO  THE   ENCYCLOPAEDIA    BRITANNICA.     Here  a  large 
number   of   the    most    interesting   subjects  are  arranged 
systematically  under  appropriate  headings  or  in    special 
chapters.     The  first  five  chapters  refer  to  sub- 
Young     jects    that    are    of   interest    to   young   people. 
Department  There  are  thousands  of  older  people,  too,   who 

will  like  these  chapters. 

The  next  seventeen   chapters  are  designed  to  aid  stu- 
dents and  specialists  in  the  prosecution  of  their  studies 
and  investigations.     The  vast  range  of  the  Britannica  is 
nowhere  better  illustrated  than  in  these  chapters.     Among 
the  easier  courses  in  reading  here  marked  out,  are  those 
in  History  (Chapter  VI.),  in  Geography  (Chapter  XIII.), 
in  Bible  History  (Chapter  XIX.),  and  in  Myth- 
Students'     °l°gy  (Chapter  XX.).      In  Chapter  3{I.  there 
Department,  are  three  courses   in    Zoology — the    first   two 
being  popular  courses,  which  everybody  may 
understand    and    enjoy ;   the    third,    a    purely    scientific 
course,  intended  for  only  special  students.     Some  other 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

chapters,  notably  that  on  Mathematics  (Chapter  XV.), 
refer  to  subjects  and  articles  in  which  only  scholars  and 
specialists  usually  take  an  interest.  Although  they  may 
seem  of  but  little  use  to  us  now,  there  will  probably  be  a 
time  when  some  of  us  shall  grow  up  to  them,  and  find 
them  to  be  exactly  what  is  required  to  meet  our  wants. 
Besides  this,  there  are  some  of  our  neighbors  and  friends 
who  are  now  especially  interested  in  those  subjects,  and 
would  not  want  such  articles  omitted. 

After  the  Students'  department,  there  are  more  than 

thirty  chapters   showing   tradesmen,   farmers, 

Busy        teachers,  and  others  how  to  derive  the  greatest 

Department    g°°d    from    the   Britannica.     Some   of   these 

chapters  are  sufficiently  broad  in  their  scope 
and  character  to  be  of  interest  to  every  intelligent  person, 
no  matter  what  his  calling  in  life.  For  instance,  what 
man  in  this  country  will  not  be  benefited  by  a  study  of  the 
chapter  entitled  "  The  American  Citizen  "  ?  What  Ameri- 
can citizen  will  not  find  much  interesting  ano)  valuable 
information  concerning  the  history  of  money,  the  conflict 
of  standards,  and  the  national  finances,  in  the  brief  chap- 
ter entitled  "The  Banker"?  To  young  men  and  young 
women  wishing  to  enter  the  civil  service  of  their  city, 
state,  or  country,  in  any  capacity,  the  chapter  for  "  The 
Candidate  for  the  Civil  Service  "  will  give  much  informa- 
tion and  assistance  that  cannot  be  easily  obtained  from 
any  other  source.  Here  is  a  chapter  to  aid  the  young 
lawyer  in  fitting  himself  to  take  a  higher  position  in  his 
profession.  Here  is  a  chapter  for  the  preacher,  showing 
him  what  a  complete  theological  library  every  owner  of 
the  Britannica  has  at  his  service.  Here  is  a  chapter  for 
the  farmer,  telling  him  where  he  may  learn  all  about  soils 
and  crops  and  fertilizers  and  farming  tools,  and  the  thou- 
sand other  things  which  interest  all  intelligent  tillers  of 


1 6  INTRODUCTION. 

the  ground.  Here  is  a  chapter  for  the  soldier,  and  for  all 
would-be  soldiers,  directing  them  to  avast  fund  of  informa- 
tion about  wars  and  battles  and  fire-arms  and  military  law 
—  such  as  can  be  found  in  no  other  single  publication  in 
the  world.  But  I  need  not  enumerate  further.  A  glance 
at  the  pages  which  compose  the  latter  half  of  the  book  will 
show  you  that  no  person  in  all  this  busy  world  of  ours 
has  been  forgotten.  Surely,  with  so  many  hints  and  helps 
at  our  hands,  we  shall  not  be  content  to  use  our  Encyclo- 
pedia merely  as  a  dictionary.  The  GUIDE  will  suggest 
many  ways  in  which  we  may  begin  immediately  to  make  it 
yield  us  large  returns  of  pleasure  and  profit. 

Would  we  engage  in  some  kind  of  intellectual  employ- 
ment during  the  long  evenings  of  winter  ?  Let  us  form 
ourselves  into  a  family  reading  circle,  and  read 
some  of  the  lighter  courses  suggested  by  the 
RCiarcle.g  GUIDE  (see  Chapters  I ,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  VI.,  XII., 
XVI L).  Would  we  like  to  know  where  we  can 
pick  up  something  to  read  occasionally  for  pastime  rather 
than  study  ?  Let  us  see  if  Chapter  XXII.  will  not  help  us. 
Do  we  want  to  improve  our  brawn  and  muscle  through 
systematic  and  pleasurable  exercise  ?  We  may  find  some- 
thing in  the  chapter  on  games  and  sports  that  will  point 
out  the  way.  Is  Tommie  troubled  about  the  composition 
that  he  is  to  write  for  the  examination  at  school  ?  Perhaps 
the  chapter  for  the  Writer  will  be  found  helpful.  Is  Mary 
anxious  to  become  a  teacher,  and  yet  not  ready  to  begin  a 
course  of  study  at  the  normal  school?  The  GUIDE  will 
direct  her  to  some  very  complete  courses  of  reading  on 
subjects  concerning  which  no  teacher  can  affor<d  to  be 
ignorant.  Is  John,  who  cast  his  first  ballot  last  year,  deep- 
ly interested  in  politics  and  hopeful  that  he  may  some 
time  become  a  candidate  for  public  office?  Let  him  de- 
vote his  spare  time  to  the  study  of  such  articles  as  the 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

GUIDE  indicates  for  the  American  Citizen,  the  Public 
Speaker,  and  the  Political  Economist.  Is  Andrew  skilful 
with  tools,  and  handy  about  making  things?  The  GUIDE 
has  numerous  interesting  suggestions  for  the  Inventor, 
the  Mechanic,  the  Electrician,  and  the  Engineer. 

And  so,  for  every  person  and  for  every  occupation  in 
life,  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  comes  with  its  inex- 
haustible fund  of  information,  and  this  little  GUIDE  which 
accompanies  it  shows  each  individual  just  how  he  can 
best  extract  the  information  which  he  needs. 

EXPLANATIONS. 

The  references  in  the  GUIDE  are  necessarily  brief,  but 
there  will  be  no  trouble  in  understanding  them. 
References    The  titjes  of  important  subjects  are  frequently 

dtannica  prmted  in  SMALL  CAPS  ;  but  where  a  number  of 
titles  occur  in  a  single  list,  all  are  generally 
printed  in  plain  lower-case  letters.  The  volume  of  the 
Britannica  is  indicated  by  Roman  numerals  ;  the  page  by 
Arabic  figures.  Occasionally  the  letter  a  is  used  to  indi- 
cate the  left-hand  column  of  a  page,  and  the  letter  b  the 
right-hand  column — accents  being  added  to  show  whether 
the  matter  referred  to  begins  at  the  top,  the  middle,  or 
the  bottom  of  the  column.  When  the  page  referred  to  is 
found  in  the  American  Additions  and  Revisions  (matter 
which  is  printed  as  supplementary  to  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica),  the  figures  denoting  it  are  preceded  by  the 
abbreviation  sup. 

EXAMPLES. — Notice  the  following  references  : 

(1)  Bracelets,  IV.  187. 

(2)  Quill  pens,  IX.  60  a' 

(3)  Sea  serpent,  XXI.  608. 

(4)  Bells,  sup.  412-413. 

(5)  May-day  customs,  XV.  647  b"' 


1 8  INTRODUCTION. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  what  each  one  of  these  refer- 
ences means.  An  examination  of  them,  in  connection 
with  the  explanations  above,  shows  us 

(1)  That  the  article  on  BRACELETS  is  found  in  volume 
IV.,  page  187. 

(2)  That  QUILL  PENS  are  described  in  volume  IX.,  page 
60,  beginning  at  the  middle  of  the  first  column. 

(3)  That  an  account  of  the  SEA  SERPENT   occurs  in 
volume  XXL,  page  608,  beginning  at  the  top  of  the  first 
column. 

(4)  That  there  is  an  article  on  BELLS  in  the  Supple- 
ments, pages  412  and  413. 

(5)  That  an   account  of    MAY-DAY  CUSTOMS   may   be 
found  in  volume  XV.,  page  647,    beginning  at  the  bottom 
of  the  second  column. 

So  many  special  subjects  receive  treatment  in  some  of 
the  chapters,  that  no  mere  chapter-headings  are  sufficient 
to  indicate  everything  that  is  included  within  their  limits. 
For  example,  there  is  no  distinct  chapter  for  the  shoe- 
maker, the  carpenter,  the  mason,  the  cook,  the  fisherman  ; 
but  each  of  these  busy  workers  receives  his  share  of 
attention  in  the  GUIDE.  Look  for  these  names,  not  in 
the  table  of  contents,  but  in  the  index  at  the  end  of 
the  volume.  It  will  be  convenient  to  use  this  index 
often. 

Few  persons  will  have  any  difficulty  in  using  the  INDEX 
VOLUME  of  the  Britannica.  In  most  cases,  if  you  desire  to 
make  a  complete  study  of  any  given  subject,  it  will  be  best 
to  look  for  that  subject  at  once  in  the  Index  volume.  The 
word  which  you  are  looking  for  will  probably  be  found  in 
its  proper  alphabetical  place.  There  you  will  be  directed 
to  every  article  or  passage  in  the  Britannica  wherein  any 
important  mention  of  the  subject  occurs.  The  first  refer- 
ence is  usually  to  the  special  article  upon  the  subject,  or  if 


INTRODUCTION.  IQ 

there  is  no  special  article,  it  will  direct  you  to  the  next 
best  thing — the  fullest  or  most  complete  de- 

The  Index  scription.  For  example,  suppose  you  want  to 
Volume,  learn  all  about  the  Indians.  Turn  to  the  In- 
dex volume,  and  on  page  223  you  will  find  the 

following  entry  : 

INDIANS,  American,  xn.  822,  830 ;  i. 
685  ;  displacement  of,  xxm.  819  ; 
languages  of,  xvm.  780;  dictionaries 
of  languages,  vn.  192  ;  mythology, 
xvii.  148  ;  religions,  xx.  364;  totems, 
xxni.  467;  Eliot's  work  among,  vm. 
137;  Penn's  influence  over,xvm.496; 
of  Costa  Rica,  vi.  450  ;  of  South 
America,  I.  89  ;  of  Colombia,  vi.  155; 
of  Peru,  xvin.  677, 

Consulting  the  first  reference  ("  volume  XII.,  page  822 ."), 
you  will  find  an  article  of  eleven  pages  in  length,  giving  a 
concise  account  of  the  Indians,  their  physical  traits,  tribal 
divisions,  customs,  etc.  The  second  reference  ("  I.  685  "), 
directs  the  reader  to  the  article  AMERICA,  where  there  is  a 
complete  history  of  the  aboriginal  races,  with  still  further 
notices  of  their  habits,  languages,  religions,  etc.  The  third 
reference  ("displacement  of,  XXIII.  819"),  directs  atten- 
tion to  a  paragraph  under  the  article  headed  UNITED 
STATES,  in  which  an  account  is  given  of  the  westward 
movement  of  immigration  and  the  consequent  displace- 
ment of  the  Indian  tribes.  The  remaining  references  may 
be  found  with  equal  facility  and  are  self-explanatory. 
After  having  consulted  as  many  of  these  as  you  think 
necessary,  you  may  still  wish  to  learn  the  very  latest  facts 
relative  to  the  status  of  the  Indian  tribes  in  the  United 
States.  Turning  to  the  Index  to  the  Supplements,  see 
whether  or  not  there  are  additional  references  of  a  similar 


CJI  *** 

«:-.?, 


2O  INTRODUCTION. 

character  there.  By  turning  to  any  articles  that  may  be 
thus  indicated,  you  will  doubtless  find  all  the  information 
on  this  subject  that  you  desire. 

Any  other  subject  may  be  studied  in  a  similar  way. 

Now,  take  the  word  SEA,  or  LONDON,  or  COLUMBUS, 
and  find  all  the  references  to  it  that  are  given  in  the 
Index. 

Whenever  the  word  for  which  you  are  looking  cannot 
be  found  in  the  first  part  of  the  Index,  look  for  it  in  the 
second  part  which  relates  to  the  Supplements. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  Index  volume,  and 
one  which  is  not  alluded  to  elsewhere  in  this 
^°nrdaen^cdal  GUIDE,  is  the  Condensed  Biographical  Die- 
Dictionary  tionary.  For  quick  and  ready  reference  this 
dictionary  will  often  prove  to  be  of  great  service. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  complete  dictionaries  of  its  kind 
ever  published,  containing  the  names  of  more  than 
twenty-five  thousand  persons,  with  their  titles  or  voca- 
tions, and  the  dates  of  birth  and  death.  Further  particu- 
lars with  regard  to  many  (but,  of  course,  not  all)  of  these 
individuals  may  be  found  by  referring  to  the  Index,  which 
will  point  out  the  exact  place  in  the  Britannica  where  the 
desired  information  is  given. 


PART  I. 


THE  YOUNG  PEOPLE. 


21 


CHAPTER  I. 

TO   THE   BOYS   AND   GIRLS. 

"  Now,  my  young  friends,  this  habit  of  reading  is  your  pass  to  the 
greatest,  the  purest,  and  the  most  perfect  pleasures  that  God  has  pre- 
pared for  his  creatures.  But  you  cannot  acquire  this  habit  in  your  old 
age  ;  you  cannot  acquire  it  in  middle  age  ;  you  must  do  it  now,  when 
you  are  young.  You  must  learn  to  read,  and  to  like  reading  now,  or 
you  cannot  do  so  when  you  are  old." — Anthony  Trollops. 

» 

ALLOW  me  to  introduce  you,  boys  and  girls,  to  the  En- 
cyclopcedia  Britannica.     It  is,  without  question,  the  great- 
est book  of  its  kind  that  has  ever  been  published 
The        m  °ur  language.     Here  we  have  it  in  over  a  score 
Britannica.    of  huge  volumes  with  thousands  of  illustrations 
and   hundreds   of   maps   and    diagrams.      The 
amount  of  matter  which    it  contains  is   so  great  that  it 
would  take  you  several  years  to  read  it  through. 

But  it  is  not  intended  that  anybody  shall  read  it 
through.  It  would  be  extremely  foolish  for  you  to  begin 
with  the  first  page  of  the  first  volume,  and  try  to  read 
everything  in  the  order  in  which  it  comes.  It  would  be 
like  sitting  down  at  a  table  loaded  with  delicacies  and 
trying  to  eat  everything  from  the  first  dish  to  the  last, 
without  considering  either  your  tastes  or  your  needs.  No 
person  in  his  right  senses  would  think  of  doing  such  a 
thing.  You  will  readily  understand,  therefore,  how  im- 
portant it  is  that  you  should  know,  at  the  very  outset, 
what  this  famous  book  is,  and  how  it  ought  to  be  used  in 
order  that  it  may  be  of  the  greatest  possible  assistance 
and  value  to  you. 

23 


24  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

What  is  an  encyclopaedia  ? 

It  is  a  book  which   treats  of  all  the  various   kinds  of 

knowledge.     In  other  words,  it  is  a  book  which  contains 

some   information   concerning  everything  that 

can  be  learned  by  man  in  this  life.  If  you 
What  is  it  ?  .  f  J 

could  know  the   whole  encyclopaedia  by  heart, 

you  would  be  a  very  learned  person,  indeed. 
But,  of  course,  this  is  impossible ;  and  it  would  be  very 
unwise  for  you  to  think  of  becoming  a  great  scholar  in  that 
way.  You  do  not  want  to  make  a  walking  encyclopaedia 
of  yourself. 

Does  the  carpenter  carry  his  chest  of  tools  around  on 
his  back  while  he  is  at  work?  Of  course  not.  But  he 
knows  where  the  chest  is,  and  he  knows  just 
How  to  where  each  tool  is  placed  in  it,  so  that  he  can 
use  it.  lay  his  hands  upon  it  in  a  moment,  even  though 
his  eyes  should  be  shut.  So  it  should  be  with 
your  encyclopaedia.  You  don't  want  to  load  your  mind 
with  the  millions  of  facts  which  it  contains,  and  burden 
your  memory  with  the  retention  of  them  all.  But  you 
want  to  know  your  encyclopaedia  so  well  that  when  it  is 
desirable  to  lay  hold  of  a  certain  fact,  you  can  do  so  with- 
out loss  of  time,  and  without  unnecessary  labor. 

Again,  among  the  great  variety  of  tools  which  the  car- 
penter has  in  his  chest,  there  are  some  which  he  uses  very 
often,  there  are  others  which  he  needs  only  on  special  oc- 
casions, and  there  are  still  others  which,  being  required  for 
only  the  very  finest  work,  may  not  be  called  into  use  more 
than  once  or  twice  for  years  at  a  time.  But  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  all  these  tools,  and  to  know  how  to  handle 
them,  for  there  is  no  telling  when  they  may  be  called  for. 
And  so  it  is  with  your  encyclopaedia.  Some  of  its  articles 
will  be  helpful  to  you,  day  by  day,  as  you  carry  on  your 
studies  at  school  or  your  work  at  home.  Others  are,  at 


TO   THE   BOYS   AND   GIRLS.  25 

the  present,  of  no  interest  whatever  to  you.  Indeed,  you 
will  find  not  a  few  that  are  wholly  incomprehensible  to 
you.  But  that  which  is  of  no  use  to-day  may  be  just  the 
thing  that  you  will  need  a  year,  two  years,  or  five  years 
from  to-day ;  and  the  articles  which  you  cannot  now  by 
any  means  understand  may  contain  exactly  what  you  will 
enjoy  and  be  profited  by  when  you  are  a  little  older.  And 
so  it  will  be  a  good  thing  at  the  outset  to  confine  your 
inquiries  and  your  readings  to  those  subjects  which  are  the 
easiest  for  you  and  in  which  you  will  naturally  be  the 
most  deeply  interested. 

Now,  here  are  some  curious  things  which  you  may  like 
to  read  about.     They  have  been  selected  at  random  from 
among  hundreds  of  others  that  will  from  time 
Curious        to  time  be  suggested  to  you. 
Things.  The   Bo-tree  (the  oldest  tree  in  the  world), 

sup.  529,  IX.  154. 

The  Banyan  tree,  III.  348. 

Great  trees  of  California,  IV.  704. 

The  Upas  tree,  XXIII.  859. 

Pygmies  (famous  little  people  of  Africa),  XX.  120. 

Gipsies,  X.  611.  This  is  a  long  article,  and  a  part  of  it 
may  not  be  interesting  to  you ;  but  you  will  certainly  like 
to  read  the  section  which  describes  their  modes  of  life,  X. 
616. 

Magic  mirrors,  XVI.  501. 

Poison  rings,  XX.  561. 

Ancient  bottles,  IV.  167. 

Great  Bells,  sup.  412. 

Kites  and  Kite-flying,  sup.  1797. 

Bracelets,  IV.  187. 

History  of  fans,  IX.  27. 

History  of  the  American  Flag,  sup.  1285. 

Flags  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  IX.  276. 


26  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Holidays,  sup.  1595. 

The  sea  serpent,  XXI.  608. 

Cataracts  and  waterfalls,  sup.  722. 

Quill  pens  for  writing,  IX.  60. 

The  great  wall  of  China,  sup.  1457. 

The  thugs  of  India,  XXIII.  326. 

Wax  figures,  XXIV.  460. 

Spinning  in  old  times,  XXIV.  730. 

Egyptian,  Greek,  and  Roman  months,  IV.  665. 

Wild  horses  of  India,  XII.  741. 

The  roc  (monster  bird  of  the  Arabian  Nights],  XX.  61 1. 

The  honey  guide  (a  curious  little  bird),  XII.  139. 

The  cockatrice,  VI.  98. 

The  hunters  and  the  glutton,  X.  696. 

The  ichneumon,  XII.  629. 

The  custom  of  April  Fool,  II.  214. 

May-day  customs  in  old  times,  XV.  647. 

The  Nile  festival  in  Egypt,  VII.  727. 

The  ordeal  of  fire  in  the  Middle  Ages,  XVII.  820. 

Deodands,  VII.  100. 

The  divining-rod,  VII.  293,  and  XL  549. 

The  automaton,  III.  142. 

The  hornbook,  XII.  170. 

The  diving-bell,  VII.  294-300. 

Balloons,  I.  187. 

Every  young  person  likes  to  read  about  heroes  and  deeds 
of  heroism.     The  Britannica  tells  of  a  great  number.     A 
very  interesting  course  of  reading  may  be  made 
up  from  the  following  and  similar  subjects : 

Leonidas,  king   of    Sparta,  who    with    three 
hundred  men,  defended  a  mountain  pass  against 
the  entire  Persian  army,  XIV.  462. 

Cincinnatus,  who  was  called  from  his  plough  to  be  dic- 
tator of  Rome,  V.  784. 


TO   THE   BOYS   AND   GIRLS.  2/ 

Horatius  Codes,  who  defended  the  bridge  across  the 
Tiber,  and  thus  saved  Rome,  VI.  100. 

Regulus,  the  Roman  who  suffered  death  rather  than 
break  his  word,  XX.  348. 

William  Tell,  the  mythical  hero  of  Switzerland,  XXIII. 

155- 

Arnold  Winkelried,  the  Swiss  patriot,  XXIV.  612. 

Jeanne  D'Arc,  the  heroine  who  saved  France  from  the 
English,  XIII.  695;  IX.  550. 

Captain  John  Smith,  famous  in  the  early  history  of  Vir- 
ginia, XXII.  173;  XV.  301. 

Garibaldi,  the  Italian  patriot,  sup.  1368. 

Then  there  are  scores  of  interesting  articles  about  kings, 
warriors,  and  statesmen,  some  of  which  you  will  want  to 
read.  The  following  are  examples  : 

Alexander  the  Great,  I.  480. 

Kings  and         Hannibal,  the  Carthaginian  general,  XI,  441. 
Warriors.         Julius  Caesar,    the  greatest  of   the    Romans, 
IV.  633. 

Tamerlane  the  Tartar,  XXIII.  399. 

Charlemagne,  V.  402. 

Alfred  the  Great,  I.  506. 

William  the  Conqueror,  XXIV.  574. 

Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  XX.  539. 

Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  XVIII.  698. 

George  Washington,  XXIV.  387. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  XVII.  192. 

Or,  if  you  would  read  of  discoverers  and  adventurers, 
see  such  articles  as  these  : 

Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  XI.  672. 
Columbus,  VI.  171. 
Hernan.  Cortes,  VI.  441. 


28  GUIDE   TO   THE    BRITANNICA. 

Francisco  Pizarro,  XIX.  159. 
Ferdinand  Magellan,  XV.  197. 

John  and  Sebastian  Cabot,  IV.  622. 

an  Sir  Frands  Drake'  VIL  389' 

Adventurers.      Vasco  da  Gama>  X-  57- 
Captain  Cook,  VI.  330. 

Henry  Hudson,  XII.  332. 
Ibn  Batuta  (Hth  century),  XII.  607. 
Marco  Polo,  XIX.  404. 
African  Explorations,  I.  245. 

Henry  M.  Stanley  and  the  recent  discoveries  in  Africa, 
sup.  2777. 

Arctic  Explorations  and  Discoveries,  II.  133. 
Sir  John  Franklin,  IX.  719. 
Martin  Frobisher,  IX.  791. 
Australian  explorers,  III.  104. 
Captain  Kidd,  sup.  1788. 

Then  aside  from  this  mere  reading  for  pleasure  or  ordi- 
nary information,  you  will  want  to  learn  from  time  to 
time  how  a  great  many  things  are  done.     The 
How  to  do    Britannica  will    help  you.     For    example,    no- 
Things,      tice  the  following : 

How  to  make  liquid  glue,  X.  134  a. 

How  to  do  gold  gilding,  X.  594  a. 

How  to  tie  knots,  XIV.  128  a. 

How  to  make  gold  lacquer  for  brass  work,  XIV.  194  a. 

How  to  make  snow-shoes,  XXII.  201  b. 

How  to  make  photographs,  XVIII.  214  b. 

How  to  do  sleight  of  hand  tricks,  XIV.  414.     , 

How  to  collect  butterflies,  IV.  597  b. 

How  to  make  putty,  XX.  18. 

How  to  build  an  ice  house,  XII.  615  a. 

How  to  shoe  a  horse,  XXI.  831,  832. 


i 


TO  THE  BOYS  AND   GIRLS.  29 

How  bells  are  made,  III.  537  a. 

How  matches  are  made,  XV.  624. 

How  to  do  with  a  magic  lantern,  XV.  211. 

How  nets  are  made,  XVII.  359. 

How  to  make  flies  for  trout  fishing,  II.  40. 

How  pins  are  made,  XIX.  97. 

How  a  marble  statue  is  made,  XXI.  571. 

How  to  make  a  canoe,  IV.  811. 

How  to  rig  a  ship,  XXI.  593. 

How  to  care  for  hunting  hounds,  XII.  315. 

How  to  make  bows  and  arrows,  II.  376  a. 

How  to  catch  fish  with  a  hook,  II.  32. 

How  to  make  a  bull-roarer,  sup.  617. 

How  carrier-pigeons  are  trained,  sup.  710. 

And  now  don't  you  begin  to  see  what  a  vast  amount  of 
entertaining  and  useful  knowledge  lies  before  you  in  these 
volumes,  ready  for  you  to  use  when  you  choose  ? 

In  the  chapters  that  are  to  follow,  an  effort  will  be 
made  to  classify  a  few  of  the  subjects  which  will  be  of 
most  interest  to  you.  In  this  way  the  GUIDE  hopes  to 
help  you  to  a  still  further  and  more  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  contents  of  the  Britannica.  If  you  once  acquire 
the  habit  of  consulting  it,  you  will  find  it  a  trustworthy 
friend,  ready  to  answer  your  questions  and  willing  to  help 
you  on  all  occasions. 

The  Index  volume  of  the  Britannica  will  be  of  great 
assistance  to  you  in  making  references  to  any  of  the  other 
volumes.  When  you  want  to  find  out  anything  about  a 
given  subject,  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  turn  at  once  to 
that  volume.  If  you  do  not  know  how  to  use  the  Index, 
refer  now  to  page  i^~of  this  GUIDE,  and  read  the  direc- 
tions that  are  given  there. 


30  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  II. 

HOME   READINGS   IN   HISTORY. 
"  The  use  of  reading  is  to  aid  us  in  thinking." — Edward  Gibbon. 

To  KNOW  one  thing  well  is  better  than  to  have  a  smat- 
tering of  many  things.     It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  choose 
for  yourself  some  particular  subject  which  you  like,  and 
then  to  follow  a  systematic  course  of  reading 

Courses  of  . 

Reading.  on  tnat  SUDJect  until  you  have  acquired  a  com- 
prehensive knowledge  of  it.  Some  of  you  will 
prefer  history,  some  of  you  biography  (which  is  really  a 
branch  of  history),  some  of  you  science,  and  some  of  you 
art.  In  beginning  such  a  course  read  that  which  you  can 
readily  understand  ;  you  will  gradually  become  able  to 
understand  and  enjoy  things  which  now  seem  very  hard 
and  totally  unintelligible  to  you.  It  is  not  intended  that 
a  course  of  this  kind  should  take  the  place  of  the  miscel- 
laneous reading  which  you  will  want  to  do  —  of  the 
stories,  the  poems,  the  sketches,  the  many  excellent  and 
beautiful  things  in  literature  which  every  intelligent  boy 
or  girl  takes  delight  in  reading.  The  aim  and  object  of 
this  course  is  to  add  to  your  knowledge,  to  aid  you  in 
thinking,  to  help  you  to  become  an  intelligent  man  or  wo- 
man. Having  once  decided  to  begin  it,  resolve  that  noth- 
ing shall  induce  you  to  neglect  it.  Devote  a  little  time  to 
it  regularly.  If  you  give  ten  minutes  every  day 'to  syste- 
matic reading — and  you  need  not  give  more — you  will  be 
astonished  at  the  end  of  a  year  to  note  how  many  things 
you  have  learned.  But  if  you  find  the  reading  pretty  diffi- 
cult now  and  then,  you  must  not  give  up  on  that  account. 


HOME   READINGS   IN    HISTORY.  31 

The  hardest  reading  is  very  often  the  most  profitable — 
provided  always  that  we  make  ourselves  the  masters  of  it. 

There  are  a  great  many  articles  in  the  Britannica  which 
may  be  utilized  in  courses  of  reading  of  this  kind.  If  the 
Britannica  is  the  only  book  to  which  you  have  access, 
these  articles  maybe  made  to  comprise  a  complete  course 
in  themselves.  But-  if  there  are  at  hand  other  books  on 
the  same  subject,  then  the  readings  from  the  Britannica 
may  be  made  to  supplement  your  study  of  these  other 
authorities.  For  instance,  let  us  suppose  that  you  have 
undertaken  to  learn  all  that  you  can  about  United  States 
History.  Perhaps  you  have  studied  a  text-book  on  that 
subject  at  school.  Did  it  seem  dull  and  dry  to  you  ?  Per- 
haps the  writer  has  made  it  so  by  trying  to  compress  a 
great  amount  of  information  into  a  very  small  space.  He 
has  given  a  large  number  of  dates  and  names,  and  you 
have  been  expected  to  learn  these  and  remember  them. 

But  history  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word  is  a  good  deal 
more  than  dates  and  names.  It  is  a  fascinating 

What  is 

History?      story,  and  people  read  it  because  of  the  pleas- 
ure which  it  gives  no  less  than  for  the  profit 
which  may  be  derived  from  it.     Take  now  your  school 
history  and  supplement  the  lessons  which  it  contains  with 
readings  from  the  following  articles  in  the  Britannica  : 
The  story  of  Columbus,  VI.  171. 
The  life  of  Cortes,  the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  VI.  441. 

The  life  of   Pizarro,  the  conqueror  of  Peru, 

I59'   and  a  Particular  account   of   his   ex- 
Colonists.    Ploits  in  Peru»  XVIII.  677. 

The  life  of  Balboa,  the  discoverer  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  III.  273  ;  and  a  particular  account  of  his 
great  discovery,  X.  182. 

The  life  of  De  Soto,  the  discoverer  of  the  Mississippi, 
131. 


32  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

The  life  of  Sir  Francis  Drake,  the  first  Englishman  who 
sailed  round  the  world,  VII.  389. 

The  life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  the  great  admiral,  states- 
man, and  courtier,  XX.  262. 

The  life  of  Captain  John  Smith,  who  figures  so  promi- 
nently in  the  story  of  the  settlement  of  Virginia,  XXII. 

173- 

The  story  of  Pocahontas,  the  Indian  princess,  XXII.  175. 
The  story  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  XII.  726. 
The  account  of  the  Dutch  settlers  in  New  York,  XVII. 

454- 

The  life  of  William  Penn,  the  Quaker  founder  of  Penn- 
sylvania, XVIII.  492. 

The  story  of  Marquette,  the  French  explorer,  XV.  565. 

The  life  of  La  Salle,  who  rediscovered  the  Mississippi, 
XIV.  318. 

The  story  of  Pontiac,  the  Indian  chief,  XVIII.  504. 

The  life  of  General  Wolfe,  the  hero  of  Quebec,XXI  V.  630. 
The  life  of  Washington,  XXIV.  387. 

Great  The  life  of  Franklin,  America's  first  philoso- 

Americans.    pher,  IX.  711. 

The  life  of  Patrick  Henry,  XL  676. 

The  life  of  John  Adams,  I.  141. 

The  life  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  XIII.  613. 

The  story  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  XXIII. 

743- 

The  life  of  Lafayette,  XIV.  201. 

The  life  of  General  Greene,  XL  163. 

The  story  of  Benedict  Arnold,  XXIII.  744,  787. 

The  life  of  Cornwallis,  VI.  428. 

An  account  of  Aaron  Burr,  XL  413. 

The  life  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  XL  412. 

And  now,  if  you  wish  to  continue  your  historical  read- 
ings to  the  present  time,  you  may  do  so  by  reading  the 


HOME   READINGS   IN   HISTORY.  33 

biographies  of  the  Presidents  who  have  not  been  named 
in  the  list  above : 

The  James  Madison,  XV.  182. 

Presidents.        James  Monroe,  XVI.  760. 

John  Quincy  Adams,  I.  142. 

Andrew  Jackson,  XIII.  533. 

Martin  Van  Buren,  XXIV.  56. 

William  H.  Harrison,  XI.  495. 

John  Tyler,  XXIII.  674,  766. 

James  K.  Polk,  XIX.  401. 

Zachary  Taylor,  XXIII.  96. 

Millard  Fillmore,  IX.  165. 

Franklin  Pierce,  XIX.  8 1. 

James  Buchanan,  IV.  413. 

Abraham  Lincoln,  XIV.  658. 

Andrew  Johnson,  XIII.  719. 

Ulysses  S.  Grant,  XXIII.  788,  776  ;  also  sup.  1442. 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  XXIII.  784;  also  sup.  1554. 

James  A.  Garfield,  sup.  1368. 

Chester  A.  Arthur,  sup.  250. 

Grover  Cleveland,  sup.  831. 

Benjamin  Harrison,  sup.  1532. 

William  McKinley,  sup.  1959. 

By  the  time  you  have  read  all  these  biographies  you 
will  have  acquired  such  a  knowledge  of  American  history 
as  will  be  of  value  to  you  as  long  as  you  live.  But  to 
some  of  you  this  course  may  seem  hard,  dry  reading.  If 
so,  it  will  be  no  trouble  to  suggest  another — a  very  differ- 
ent one,  which  all  boys  who  are  fond  of  the  sea  and  not 

afraid  of  a  little  history  will  turn  to  with  pleasure. 

*  i 

NAVAL    HISTORY. 

Ships  in  former  times  were  very  different  from  those 
which  sail  the  sea  nowadays.     Read  of  the  first  invention 
3 


34  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

of  boats  and  ships  in  volume  XXL,  page  804.     Among  the 

earliest  war  ships  of  which  we  have  any  account 

are  the  Greek  and  Roman  triremes,  described  on 

page  806  of  the  same  volume.     In  the  article 

on  the  NAVY,  XVII.  279,  there  is  an  interesting 

account  of  the  early  war  ships  used  by  the  English.     King 

Henry  VIII.  is  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  the 

British  navy,  and  the  largest  ship  of  his  time,  the  Great 

Harry,  is  described,  XVII.  281.     Queen  Elizabeth  called 

together  the  greatest  naval  force  that  had  ever  been  known, 

in  order  to  oppose  the  Invincible  Armada  of  Spain.     The 

story  of  the  ARMADA  and  of  its  notable  defeat  is  told  in 

an  interesting  article  on  page  543  of  volume  II.     And  in 

this  connection  you  will  want  to  read  about  Sir  Walter 

Raleigh,  XX.  262,  about  Sir  Francis  Drake,  VII.  389,  and 

about  Sir  John  Hawkins,  XL  535. 

But  it  is  not  expected  that  this  course  of  reading  shall 
be  exhaustive ;  and  so  you  may  turn  now  to  the  life  of 
Nelson,  XVII.  321  ;  to  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  I.  52  ;  and 
to  the  Battle  of  Trafalgar,  VI.  146. 

Next,  read  about  our  own  naval  heroes : 

Paul  Jones,  XIII.  738. 

Commodore  Decatur,  XXIII.  759  also  sup.  1008. 

Commodore  Perry,  sup.  2351. 

Admiral  Farragut,  IX.  41. 

Finally,  by  way  of  concluding  this  brief  course  of  read- 
ing, you  will  find  it  profitable  to  learn  all  that  you  can 
about  the  UNITED  STATES  NAVY,  XVII.  300,  and  par- 
ticularly our  new  navy,  its  wonderful  armament  and  its 
estimated  strength,  sup.  2145-2153. 

THE   ROMANCE   OF   HISTORY. 

I.  There  are  many  things  connected  with  the  history  of 
the  Middle  Ages  which  give  to  it  the  charm  of  romance. 


HOME   READINGS   IN   HISTORY.  35 

We  never  tire  of  reading  about  the  KNIGHTS  of  chivalry, 
XIV.   no;  about  the  CASTLES  in  which   they 
Tales  of    lived,  V.  197  ;  about  the  TOURNAMENTS  which 
Knighthood,  they  held,   XXIII.  489;  and  about  the  CRU- 
SADES in  which  they  engaged,  VI.  622. 
Next,  let  us   read  the  legend  of  Roland,  the  peerless 
knight  of  France,  XX.  626 ;  the  history  of  Richard  the 
Lion-hearted,    XX.  539,  and  particularly  of  his  exploits 
in   Palestine,  VI.  628  ;  the  story  of  the  English  outlaw, 
Robin  Hood,  XX.  605  ;  the  account  of  Godfrey  of  Bouil- 
lon,   VI.    624 ;    the   history   of   the    Children's    Crusade, 
VI.   627 ;    and    finally,   the    story   of    Chevalier    Bayard, 
the  knight   "without   fear  and    without    reproach,"    III. 

457- 

When  you  have  mastered  this  course  of  reading,  you 
will  have  a  better  knowledge  of  mediaeval  life  and  manners 
and  traditions  than  you  could  ever  have  acquired  merely 
by  studying  an  ordinary  text-book  at  school. 

2.  A  second  course — equally  interesting,  but  somewhat 
harder,  and,  therefore,  suited  to   older  readers — may  be 
taken  from  ROMAN  HISTORY.  Read  the  legendary  story  of 

Romulus,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  city,  XX. 

Stories  of      840 ;  the  mythical  tale  of  the  Horatii  and  Cu- 

Rome.       riatii,  XII.  160  ;  the  account  of  Horatius  Codes, 

the  hero  who  kept  the  bridge,.  VI.  100;  of 
brave  Regulus,  who  never  broke  his  word,  XX.  348  ;  of 
Cincinnatus,  called  from  his  plough  to  defend  his  country, 
V.  784;  of  Cornelia,  the  mother  of  the  Gracchi,  VI.  421  ; 
of  the  Gracchi  themselves,  and  of  their  services  to  their 
country,  XI.  25  ;  of  Hannibal,  the  Carthaginian  hero, 
XI.  441  ;  and  of  Caesar,  IV.  633,  and  Pompey,  XIX.  451. 
and  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  republic,  XX.  763. 

3.  The  third  course  is  not  historical,  but 
cal  or  legendary,  and  yet  there  is, 


36  GUIDE   TO    THE    13.U 


historical  basis  for  it.  It  relates  to  the  story  of  the  TRO- 
JAN WAR — an  event  immortalized  by  Homer, 
Story  of  the  first  of  the  poets,  and  made  the  subject  of 
Troy.  many  a  tale  and  poem  and  tragic  drama  from 
his  time  until  now.  As  the  basis  and  starting- 
point  of  this  course,  read  the  Legend  of  Troy,  XXIII.  582  ; 
then  refer  to  the  following  articles  in  their  order: 

Paris,  whose  perfidy  was  the  cause  of  the  war  and  the 
ultimate  ruin  of  his  country,  XVIII.  295. 

Helen  of  Argos,  the  most  beautiful  woman  in  the 
world,  XI.  629. 

Menelaus,  the  wronged  husband  of  Helen,  XVI.  10. 

Agamemnon,  "  king  of  men  "  and  leader  of  the  Grecian 
forces,  I.  273. 

Odysseus,  the  wily  hero,  chief  actor  in  Homer's  Odys- 
sey, XVII.  729. 

Achilles,  whose  wrath  and.  its  consequences  form  the 
subject  of  the  Iliad,  I.  94. 

Hector,  the  bravest  and  ablest  of  the  Trojan  chiefs, 
XL  609. 

Ajax  Telamon  and  Ajax  Oileus,  typical  heroes  and 
leaders  of  the  Greeks,  I.  432. 

And  now,  if  you  have  become  interested  in  stones  of 
this  kind,  turn  to  chapter  XX.  in  this  GUIDE  and  find  there 
an  extensive  list  of  Greek  legends  and  other  romantic 
tales,  all  of  which  are  narrated  with  more  or  less  fulness 
in  the  pages  of  the  Britannica. 


HOME   READINGS   IN   BIOGRAPHY.  37 


CHAPTER    III. 

HOME   READINGS   IN   BIOGRAPHY. 

"  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us, 

We  can  make  our  lives  sublime, 
And,  departing,  leave  behind  us 
Footprints  on  the  sands  of  time." 

— Longfellow. 

THE  biographies  of  great,  and  especially  of  good  men, 
will  always  be  found  instructive  and  useful  to  the  young. 
Some  of  the  best  are  almost  equal  to  gospels.  They  teach 
high  living,  high  thinking,  and  energetic  action.  They 
show  what  it  is  in  the  power  of  each  to  accomplish  for 
himself.  No  young  man  can  rise  from  the  perusal  of  such 
lives  without  feeling  his  whole  mind  and  heart  made  better, 
and  his  best  resolutions  strengthened.  They  increase  his 

self-reliance  by  fortifying  his  views  and  elevat- 

Uses  of      ing  his  aims  in   life.     Sometimes,  too,  a  young 

Biography,    man  discovers  himself   in  a  biography,  as  Cor- 

reggio  felt  within  him  the  risings  of  genius  on 
contemplating  the  works  of  Michael  Angelo.  "  And  I, 
too,  am  a  painter !  "  he  exclaimed.  Benjamin  Franklin 
was  accustomed  to  attribute  his  usefulness  and  eminence 
to  his  having  in  youth  read  a  work  of  Cotton  Mather's. 
And  Samuel  Drew  avers  that  he  framed  his  own  life,  and 
especially  his  business  habits,  on  the  model  left  on  record 
by  Benjamin  Franklin.  Thus,  it  is  impossible  to  say 
where  a  good  example  may  not  reach,  or  where  it  will 
end,  if  indeed  it  have  an  end. 

But,  to  be  more  precise,  it  may  be  well  to  name  a  few 


38  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

biographies  that  will  illustrate  the  more  desirable  elements 
of  character.  For  instance,  the  most  striking  lessons  of 

DILIGENCE,   APPLICATION,   AND   PERSEVERANCE 

are  to  be  found  in  the  lives  of  certain  famous  men  about 
whom  no  one  can  afford  to  be  ignorant.  Read,  therefore, 
the  following  biographical  sketches  : 

Benjamin    Franklin,    the    studious    printer's 
Diligence      apprentice,  who  became  the  first  philosopher  of 
America,  IX.  711. 

Washington  Irving,  the  "  father  of  American 
literature,"  XIII.  372. 

Arthur  Wellesley,  Duke  of  Wellington,  the  leader  of  the 
victorious  armies  at  Waterloo,  XXIV.  493. 

Michael  Faraday,  the  distinguished  scientist,  IX.  29. 

James  A.  Garfield,  the  canal-boy,  who  became  President 
of  the  United  States,  sup.  1368. 

Richard  Cobden,  the  English  political  economist  and 
reformer,  VI.  85. 

Hugh  Miller,  the  stone-cutter  of  Cromarty,  who  at- 
tained distinction  in  both  science  and  literature,  XVI. 

318. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton,  the  son  of  a  small  farmer,  who 
through  his  industry  became  the  foremost  philosopher  of 
modern  times,  XVII.  438. 

Buffon,  the  French  naturalist,  who  declared  that  "  ge- 
nius is  patience,"  and  whose  rule  was  to  turn  every  mo- 
ment to  account,  IV.  444. 

Dr.  Jenner,  the  discoverer  of  vaccination,  XIII.  622; 
XXIV.  23. 

Daguerre,  the  inventor  of  the  daguerreotype,  and  the 
real  founder  of  the  art  of  photography,  VI.  761. 

Gainsborough,  the  son  of  a  cloth-worker,  who  became 
one  of  the  greatest  of  English  painters,  X.  15. 


HOME  READINGS  IN  BIOGRAPHY.  39 

General  Grant,  who  rose  from  obscurity  to  be  one  of  the 
most  successful  military  leaders  cf  modern  times,  sup.  1442. 
Then  there  have  been  men  who,  in  the  face  of 

POVERTY,   SICKNESS,   OR  DISASTER, 

won  their  way  to  success  and  distinction.  Read  the  story 
of  their  lives,  and  learn  that,  to  the  boy  or  man  of  deter- 
mination and  will,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  failure. 
Among  scores  of  such  men,  it  is  necessary  to  mention 
only  a  few. 

Palissy,  the  potter,  whose    life    reads  like  a 
Menof       romance,  XVIII.  186. 

tion  Galileo,  who  continued  his  scientific  pursuits 

even  after  blindness  and  old  age  had  come  upon 
him,  X.  30. 

Elihu  Burritt,  "the  learned  blacksmith, "  who,  in  the 
odd  moments  of  his  business,  made  himself  the  master  of 
forty  languages,  sup.  633. 

Thomas  Carlyle,  the  son  of  a  mason,  who,  by  his  own 
perseverance,  became  one  of  the  most  famous  men  of  mod- 
ern times,  sup.  701. 

John  Bunyan,  who  wrote  the  "  Pilgrim's  Progress " 
while  in  prison,  and  at  the  same  time  supported  his  fam- 
ily by  making  tag  laces,  IV.  526, 

Sir  Richard  Arkwright,  who  worked  his  way  from  a 
barber's  shop  to  be  the  inventor  of  the  spinning  jenny 
and  the  founder  of  the  cotton  industry  in  Great  Britain, 
II.  540. 

Samuel  Drew,  who  rose  from  the  shoemaker's  bench  to 
be  a  distinguished  essayist  and  preacher,  VII.  469. 

Sir  Humphry  Davy,  the  distinguished  philosopher,  who 
worked  his  way  up  from  the  position  of  a  country  apothe- 
cary, VI.  845. 


4°  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

George  Stephenson,  the  colliery  engine-man,  who  in- 
vented the  railway  locomotive,  XXII.  537. 

Matthew  Boulton,  "the  father  of  Birmingham,"  IV. 
172;  XXIV.  413. 

Andrew  Johnson,  the  tailor's  apprentice,  who  became 
President  of  the  United  States,  XIII.  719. 

For  examples  of 

ENERGY,  PROMPTITUDE,  AND   HARDIHOOD, 

look  into  the  biographies  of  such  men  as  the  following  : 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  XVII.  192. 
Men  of        Peter  the  Great,  XVIII.  698. 
Energy.        Saladin,  XVI.  588. 

Francis  Xavier,  XXIV.  716. 

Lord  Clive,  VI.  8. 

Oliver  Cromwell,  VI.  597. 

Andrew  Jackson,  XIII.  533. 

Robert  E.  Lee,  XIV.  399. 

Henry  M.  Stanley,  sup.  2777. 

For  interesting  illustrations  of  the  manly  qualities  of 

PATIENCE  AND  FORTITUDE   UNDER  REVERSES, 

study  the  lives  of  such  noted  men  as 

Christopher  Columbus,  VI.  171. 

Men  of       John  Hampden,  the  English  patriot,  XI.  428. 
Patience.      Dante,  the  great  Italian  poet,  VI.  809. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  XX.  262. 

Louis  Kossuth,  the  Hungarian  patriot,  sup.  1806. 

James  Watt,  the  inventor  of  the  steam  engine,  XXIV. 
412. 

James  Audubon,  the  famous  American  ornithologist, 
III.  70. 


HOME   READINGS   IN   BIOGRAPHY.  41 

Sir  Austen  H.  Layard,  the  discoverer  and  excavator  of 
the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  sup.  1847. 

William  Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  XL  502. 

Claude  Lorraine,  the  pastry-cook's  apprentice,  who  be- 
came one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  painters  of 
France,  V.  814. 

John  Flaxman,  the  famous  English  sculptor,  IX.  298. 

If  you  would  like  to  read  of  pleasant  instances  of 

CHEERFULNESS  AND  EQUANIMITY  OF  TEMPER 

under  every  variety  of  fortune,  turn  to  the  lives  of  men  like 

Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  XIII.  719. 
Men  of       Oliver  Goldsmith,  X.  760. 
ChneeesrsfUl       Sydney  Smith,  XXII.  177. 

Lord  Palmerston,  XVIII.  193. 
Abraham  Lincoln,  XIV.  658. 
Very  interesting  and  valuable  also  are  those  lessons  of 

INTEGRITY  AND  UPRIGHTNESS  OF  PRINCIPLE 

that  are  shown  in  the  careers  of 

Diogenes,  the  Greek  philosopher,  VII.  245. 
Men  of        Edmund  Burke,  the  English  orator,  IV.  538. 
Integrity,      Dr.  Thomas  Arnold,  head  master  of  the  school 
at  Rugby,  II.  626. 

Sir  Thomas  More,  the  English  statesman,  XVI.  815. 

John  Howard,  the  philanthropist,  XII.  319. 

William  Chambers,  the  Scottish  publisher,  V.  380. 

Loyola,  the  founder  of  the  society  of  Jesuits,  XV.  31. 

William  Wilberforce,  the  opponent  of  the  slave  trade, 
XXIV.  565. 

"Stonewall"  Jackson,  the  Confederate  general,  XIII. 
534- 


42  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

If  you  would  learn  of  the  rewards  which  follow 

METHOD,  PRECISION  AND  PAINSTAKING, 
read  the  biographies  of 

Nicholas  Poussin,  the  French  painter,  XIX.  649. 
Men  of        Michael  Angelo,the  great  Italian  artist,XVI.229. 
Precision.     Baron  Cuvier,  the  French  naturalist,  VI.  740. 

Titian,  the  Italian  painter,  XXIII.  413. 
William  Wordsworth,  the  poet  of  nature,  XXIV.  668. 
Lord  Brougham,  lord  chancellor  of  England,  IV.  373. 
Alexander  Pope,  XIX.  481. 

William  Cecil,  Lord  Burghley,  Queen  Elizabeth's  prime 
minister,  V.  283. 

Benjamin  Disraeli,  Lord  Beaconsfield,  VIII.  367. 
And  for  the  supreme  lessons  of  purity  of  life  and 

NOBILITY   OF   MOTIVE 

examine  the  lives  of  such  men  as 

Abraham  Lincoln,  XIV.  658. 
Noblf        General  Lafayette,  XIV.  201. 
Motives        William  Lloyd  Garrison,  X.  85. 
Horace  Greeley,  XI.  160. 

John  G.  Whittier.  sup.  3146, 
and  other  illustrious  persons  of  our  own  and  foreign  lands. 

Some  we  have  here  named  might  be  catalogued,  indeed, 
as  types  of  every  excellence  that  should  adorn  human 
character.  Such  are  our  own  Washington  and  Benjamin 
Franklin,  but  even  the  youngest  student  will  see  how  hard 
it  is  to  attempt  a  biographical  classification  on  these  lines. 

Most  boys  are  ambitious.  They  wish  to  grow  up  to  be- 
come men  of  influence  and  renown.  Many  of  them  lose  this 
ambition  because  they  are  unwilling  to  wait  long  enough, 
work  hard  enough,  and  be  sufficiently  patient  in  well-doing. 

"  The  heights  by  great  men  reached  and  kept 
Were  not  attained  by  sudden  flight," 


HOME  READINGS  IN  BIOGRAPHY.  43 

And  yet  there  have  been  many  great  men  who  displayed 
their  abilities  at  a  very  early  age.  Perhaps  you  would  like 
to  read  about  some  of  these 

GREAT  YOUNG   MEN. 

Handel  composed  a  set  of  sonatas  when  he  was  ten  years 
old,  XL  433- 

Haydn  composed  a  mass  at  thirteen,  XL  541. 
Mozart  composed  his  first  opera  at  twelve,  XVII.  8. 

Beethoven's  music  was  beaten  into  him,  but  he 

composed  three  sonatas  when  thirteen,  III.  504. 
Musicians.          _, 

Cherubim  composed  a  mass  at  thirteen,  V. 

587- 

Paganini  was  a  great  violinist  at  eight,  XVIII.  134. 
Charles   Wesley,  the   great    hymn   writer,   played   the 
harpsichord  when  he  was  a  babe,  XXIV.  504. 

Michael  Angelo  finished  his  great  marble  statue  of 
"  David  "  before  he  was  twenty,  XVI.  229. 

Raphael  was  an  eminent  artist  at  seventeen,  XX.  274. 

Canova  modelled  a  lion  out  of  butter  when 
only  four  years  old,  V.  24. 

Sir    Edward     Landseer   painted    one    of   his 
greatest  pictures  at  sixteen,  XIV.  280. 
Cervantes  had  written  several  romances  before  he  was 
twenty,  V.  347. 

Goethe  could  write  in  five  languages  when  he  was  eight, 
X.  721. 

Victor  Hugo  wrote  his  first  tragedy  when  fifteen  years 
old,  IX.  676. 

Alexander    Pope   wrote    his   Pastorals  when 
only  sixteen,  XIX.  481. 

Chatterton,  who  died  before  he  was  eighteen, 
was  already  a  great  poet,  V.  445. 
Burns  began  to  rhyme  at  sixteen,  IV.  566. 


44  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Thomas  Moore  wrote  verses  at  thirteen,  XVI.  805. 

Shelley  published  Queen  Mab  when  eighteen,  XXL  789. 

Southey  wrote  Joan  of  Arc  when  nineteen,  XXII.  289. 

Mrs.  Browning  wrote  poems  at  ten,  IV.  391. 

Tennyson  wrote  his  first  volume  of  poems  before  he 
was  eighteen,  sup.  2877. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  displayed  wonderful  ability  when  a 
mere  child,  XVII.  438. 

Blaise  Pascal  wrote  a  treatise  on  Conic  Sec- 
Philoso-       tions  when  he  was  sixteen,  XVIII.  333. 
phers.  Grotius    wrote    Latin    verses    whenZjSE-Avas 

eight,  XI.  217. 

Haller  composed  a  Chaldee  grammar  at  twelve,  XL  396. 

Lord  Bacon  planned  his  Novum  Organum  before  he  was 
sixteen,  III.  200. 

Sir  Christopher  Wren  invented  an  astronomical  instru- 
ment at  thirteen,  XXIV.  689. 

William  Pitt,  the  younger,  entered  Parliament  when  he 
was  twenty-one,  XIX.  134. 

These  were  some  of  the  great  young  men  of  modern 
times.  Ancient  history  furnishes  us  with  other  examples 
of  men  to  whom 

SUCCESS   CAME   EARLY   IN    LIFE  : 

Themistocles,  who  won  his  greatest  victory  at  the  age 
of  thirty,  XXIII.  250. 

Alexander  the  Great,  who  died  at  thirty-one,  I.  480. 

Pompey,  who  was  a  successful  Roman  general 
Young        at  twenty-three,  XIX.  450. 

Warriors.          Hannibal,   who,   when  only   twenty-six,    was 
made  sole  commander  of  the  Carthaginian  army, 
XI.  441. 

Charlemagne,  who  was  master  of  France  and  Germany 
at  thirty,  V.  402. 


HOME   READINGS   IN   BIOGRAPHY.  45 

Marshal  Saxe,  who  began  his  military  career  at  twelve, 
XXI.  346. 

Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  who  became  king  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  V.  420. 

This  list  might  be  easily  extended  ;  but  here  is  reading 
enough  for  several  winter  evenings.  And  when  you  have 
finished  it,  you  will  be  at  no  loss  to  determine  whether 
these  men  attained  distinction  at  a  single  bound  or  whether 
they  did  not  rather  win  by  hard  and  patient  labor,  begun 
while  they  were  very  young.  Greatness  comes  to  no  man 
simply  because  he  wishes  it.  It  is  the  reward  of  deter- 
mined effort. 


46  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

HOME  READINGS   IN   SCIENCE. 

"  To  neglect  all  the  abiding  parts  of  knowledge  for  the  sake  of  the 
evanescent  parts  is  really  to  know  nothing  worth  knowing." — Frederick 
Harrison. 

THE  subject  of  history  is  not  equally  attractive  to  all 
young  people.  There  are  some  who  would  prefer  to  read 
of  the  great  world  of  nature,  and  for  these  it 
Natural  would  be  easy  to  name  very  many  Britannica 
History.  articles  which  would  prove  interesting  and  in- 
structive. Now,  here  is  a  course  of  readings  in 
natural  history  arranged  in  twelve  divisions,  each  of  which 
can  be  easily  completed  in  a  month.  You  will  find  some 
of  the  articles  very  interesting  indeed,  while  others,  per- 
haps, will  seem  rather  hard  and  at  first  not  so  easy  to  un- 
derstand. But  if  you  begin  on  this  course  and  hold  to  it 
for  a  year,  you  will  find  not  only  that  you  have  gained  a 
great  deal  of  information,  but  that  the  reading  of  these 
various  articles  has  increased  your  capacity  for  deriving 
the  highest  pleasure  from  the  perusal  of  books. 

READINGS  IN   NATURAL   HISTORY. 
I.    BEASTS. 

The  Elephant,  VIII.  122. 

The  Giraffe,  X.  618. 

The  Beaver  and  its  habits,  III.  475. 

Monkeys,  II.  148. 


HOME   READINGS   IN   SCIENCE.  47 

The  Chameleon,  V.  381. 
The  Tiger,  XXIII.  385. 

IL    CURIOUS   BIRDS. 

The  Albatross — the  famous  bird  of  the  South  Seas,  I. 
448. 

The  Dodo — a  strange  bird  now  no  longer  in  existence, 
VII.  321. 

The  Cormorant — how  it  is  taught  to  catch  fish.  VI.  407. 

The  Dove,  VII.  379. 

Migration  of  Birds,  III.  765. 

The  Nightingale,  XVII.  498. 

The  Stork,  XXIII.  577. 

III.    FISHES. 
The  Shark,  XXI.  775. 
The  Swordfish,  XXII.  804. 
Mackerel,  XV.  159. 
Codfish,  VI.  103. 
Cuttle-fish,  VI.  735.     Goldfish,  X.  759. 

IV.    REPTILES. 

Special  article,  XX.  432. 
Rattlesnake,  XX.  293. 
Cobra,  VI.  90.     Anaconda,  I.  788. 
Boa  Constrictor,  III.  841. 
Tortoise,  XXIII.  455  (illustrated). 
Crocodile,  VI.  592.     Alligator,  I.  585. 

V.  INSECTS. 

Habits  of  Ants,  II.  94  a. 
Slaveholding  Ants,  II.  97  a. 
White  Ants  of  Africa,  II.  99  a. 
Bees  and  their  Habits,  III.  484. 
An  interesting  description  of  Spiders,  II.  297. 


48  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 

The  Mantis — the  curious  "  subject  of  many  wide-spread 
legends,"  XV.  503. 


VI.   EXTINCT  ANIMALS. 


The  Mammoth  (illustrated ),  XV.  447. 
The  Megatherium  (illustrated),  XV.  829. 
The  Plesiosaurus,  XIX.  220. 
The  Pterodactyl,  XX.  86. 


VII.   FABLED   ANIMALS. 

The  Dragon,  VII.  385. 
The  Cockatrice,  VI.  98. 
The  Griffin,  XI.  195. 
The  Chimaera,  V.  626 
The  Phoenix,  XVIII.  810. 
The  Roc,  XX.  61 1. 

VIII.    DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

History  of  the  Horse,  XII.  172. 

The  Arabian  Horse,' II.  240. 

The  Camel,  IV.  735. 

Dogs  (an  illustrated  article),  VII.  324. 

Cats,  V.  202. 

The  Cow,  I.  390. 

IX.   SEA  ANIMALS. 

Life  in  the  Ocean,  VII.  276-281. 
Whales  and  whale  fishing,  XXIV,  523. 
Seals  and  seal  fishing,  XXI.  580. 
The  Walrus  (illustrated),  XXIV.  337. 
The  Dolphin,  VII.  346. 
Corals,  VI.  369. 


HOME   READINGS   IN   SCIENCE.  49 

X.    COMMON   INSECTS. 


The  Housefly,  XII.  317. 
The  Humble-bee,  XII.  342. 
Beetles,  VI.  126. 
Gnats,  X.  700. 
Mosquitoes,  XVI.  866. 
Butterflies,  IV.  592. 


XI.   BARNYARD   FOWLS. 

Chickens,  IX.  491. 
Turkeys,  XXIII.  657. 
Geese,  X.  777. 
Ducks,  VII.  505. 
Pigeons,  XIX.  84. 
Eggs  of  Birds,  III.  772. 

XII.    MISCELLANEOUS. 

Special  article  on  birds,  III.  699. 
Special  article  on  insects,  XIII.  141. 
Animals  of  Asia,  II.  695. 
Animals  of  Attica,  I.  258. 
Animals  of  America,  I.  681. 
Article  on  Amphibia,  I.  750. 

Of  course  this  list  might  have  been  made  very  much 
longer — for  the  Britannica  contains  hundreds  of  such  arti- 
cles. But  the  above  -will  be  sufficient  to  start  with,  and, 
as  you  proceed  with  your  reading,  other  subjects  will 
naturally  suggest  themselves  which  you  will  be  able  to 
find  from  the  Index  volume  without  any  further  help 
from  the  GUIDE. 


5O  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  V. 

GAMES,    SPORTS,    AND    PASTIMES. 

"  Up  i  up  !  my  friend,  and  quit  your  books, 

Or  surely  you'll  grow  double  : 
Up  !  up  !  my  friend,  and  clear  your  looks  ; 

Why  all  this  toil  and  trouble  ?  " — Wordsworth. 

THIS  would  be  but  a  dull  world  if  everybody  worked  all 

the  time,  and  never  took  any  recreation.     And  the  En- 

cyclopcedia  Britannica  would  be  a  dull  book  if  it  were  filled 

entirely   with  information  about   the    different 

Work  and     branches  of  scientific  knowledge,  and  said  noth- 

Play.  ing  at  all  about  the  games,  sports,  and  pastimes 
which  amuse  our  leisure  hours  and  add  to  the 
enjoyableness  of  life.  But  from  these  volumes  you  can 
learn  how  to  play,  as  well  as  how  to  work.  Every  game 
of  any  importance,  every  pastime  that  is  of  general  in- 
terest receives  its  proper  notice. 

OUTDOOR  GAMES. 

The  game  of  BALL  has  been  a  favorite  pastime  of  all 
ages  and  nations.     Read  the  article  on  that  subject,  £up. 

327- 

Do  you  want  to  know  all  about  BASE-BALL,  its  history, 
the  rules  which  govern  the  game,  etc.?     Turn  to  volume 
III.,  page  406,  and  you  will  find  ttyere  a  brief 
Games  of      but  comprehensive  article  on  that  subject,  which 
Ball.          every  boy  will  want  to  study ;  and  this  is  con- 
tinued   in    a  supplementary    article,    sup.   370, 
which  gives  a  complete  history  of  the  game  since  its  first 


GAMES,   SPORTS,   AND   PASTIMES.  51 

introduction  in  1857  to  tne  present  time.  In  this  latter 
article  will  be  found  the  rules  which  govern  its  playing  in 
America. 

The  English  national  game  of  CRICKET  is  treated  with 
equal  fulness  in  VI.  $7$.  See  also  William  G.  Grace,  sup. 
1434.  The  leading  articles  on  both  cricket  and  base-ball 
contain  not  only  the  rules  most  generally  recognized  for 
the  government  of  the  games,  but  carefully  drawn  diagrams 
of  the  fields,  and  full  directions  for  playing. 

Next  to  base-ball,  football  claims  the  greatest  attention 
in  this  country.  Indeed,  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  which 
is  the  leading  favorite.  The  article  on  AMERICAN  FOOT- 
BALL, sup.  1301,  contains  the  very  latest  rules  regulating 
this  exciting  game.  A  history  and  general  notice  of 
football  as  it  was  formerly  played  may  be  found  in  IX. 

367- 

ARCHERY  is   the  subject  of   an  extremely  interesting 

article,  II.  371.     From  that  article  you  may  learn  not  only 

the  history  of  bows  and  arrows,  but   how   to 

Outdoor       make  them  (II.  376),  and  also  the  rules  which 

Games.        govern  the  popular  pastime  of  archery  (II.  377). 

Other  outdoor  games  of  almost  every   kind 

are  described  with  like  completeness  : 

Golf,  X.  765. 

Lacrosse,  XIV.  195. 

Bowls,  IV.  179. 

Ten-pins,  IV.  180  b"'. 

Croquet,  VI.  608  b. 

Quoits,  XX.  189. 

Curling,  VI.  712. 

Billiards,  III.  674. 

Rackets,  XX. 

Polo,  XIX.  403. 

Tennis,  XXIII. 


52  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 

INDOOR  GAMES. 

All  kinds  of  indoor  games  are  also  described,  to- 
gether with  minute  directions  for  playing  them.  The 
article  on  CHESS,  V.  592,  is  interesting  for  its 
indoor  historical  information.  The  modern  changes  of 
Games.  style  in  playing  chess  are  noted  in  sup.  778.  The 
article  on  DRAUGHTS  (commonly  known  in  this 
country  as  checkers),  VII.  444,  and  that  on  Backgammon, 
III.  197,  are  equally  entertaining  and  instructive.  Then 
there  are  the  various  games  at  cards,  all  of  which  are 
described  in  the  Britannica. 

Casino,  sup.  717. 

Bezique,  111.623. 

Cribbage.  VI.  575. 

Ecarte,  VII.  620. 

Euchre,  VIII.  654. 

Loo,  XV.  i. 

Napoleon,  XVII.  229. 

Picquet,  XIX.  114. 

Poker,  XIX.  282. 

Whist,  XXIV.  543. 

Among  other  indoor  pastimes  we  may  mention  Riddles, 
XX.  549- 

Legerdemain,  or  sleight  of  hand,  XIV.  414 ;  XV.  207. 

SPORTS. 

Few  sports  are  more  attractive  to  boys  and  men  than 
fishing ;  and  to  all  who  are  partial  to  this  kind  of  amuse- 
ment, the  article  on  Angling,  II.  32,  will  prove 
both  interesting  and  instructive.     It  'contains  a 
great  deal  of  information  about  fish  and  the  art 
of  taking  them  with  hooks.     The  li-fe  of  quaint 
old  Izaak  Walton,  the  most  famous  of  fishermen,  should 
be  read  in  this  connection,  XXIV.  342. 


GAMES,   SPORTS,   AND  PASTIMES.  53 

Most  boys,  even  though   they  are    debarred    of    such 
sports  themselves,  like  to  read  about  hunting  ;  and  so  they 
will  derive  much  pleasure  from  the  general  article  on  that 
subject,  XII.  392.     Here,  too,  they  may  learn  about  the 
care    of   fox-hounds,  XII.  315  ;  about  fox-hunting,    XII. 
395  ;  and  about  horsemanship  in  the  chase,  XII. 
195.     There  is  more  of  the  same  kind  of  read- 
ing in  VII.  328,  330,  where  a  good  deal  of  in- 
formation is  given  about  sportsmen's  dogs,  such 
as  the  pointer,  the  setter,  and  the  retriever. 

Closely  related  to  these  sports  is  the  pleasant  pastime 
of  rowing  or  sailing  on  the  water.  Several  articles  now 
claim  our  attention.  As  for  rowing,  read  what  is  said 
further  on  that  subject  in  XX.  619.  An  account  of  inter- 
collegiate boat-racing  is  given  in  sup.  2584.  The  article 
on  canoeing,  IV.  8n,  is  full  of  practical  information. 
Row-boats  are  described  further  over,  in  XXI. 

Rowin          825>     The  article  on  Yachting»  XXIV.  722-725, 
is  very  complete,  and  is  full  of  historical  inter- 
est.    Practical    directions    for    swimming    and 
diving  are  given  in  XXII.  768,  and  these  will  repay  you 
for  all  the  time  spent  in  their  study.     Skating,  XXII.  104, 
is  another  instructive  and  interesting  article. 

Everybody,  nowadays,  rides  a  bicycle  ;  and  so  everybody 
will  want  to  read  its  history,  III.  665.  A  complete  descrip- 
tion of  bicycle  manufacture  in  the  United  States  may  be 
found  in  sup.  458-460.  The  laws  regarding  bicycles  and  bi- 
cycle riders  are  noticed  in  sup.  461.  Then  in  sup.  1848  there 
is  a  brief  history  of  the  organization  called  the  League  of 
American  Wheelmen,  which  every  bicycler  will  read.  What 
bicycles  have  done  for  good  roads  is  related  in  sup.  2557. 

ATHLETIC    SPORTS,    ETC. 

While  learning  about  the  games  and  sports  of  our  own 


54  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

times  it  is  but  natural  that  we  should  wish  to  know  how 
the  people  of  former  ages  amused  themselves, 
In  Greece     an^  how  they  trained  their  bodies,  and   culti- 
and  Rome,    vated  their  strength.     Here  then,  to  begin  with, 
are  a  few  of  the  many  articles  or  parts  of  arti- 
cles relating  to  this  subject : 

Greek  games,  X.  63  ;  Olympian  games,  sup.  2251.  The 
revival  of  these  sports  at  Athens  in  the  summer  of  1896 
lends  much  additional  interest  to  the  chapters  describing 
them.  Read  then  the  following  additional  references  to 
the  Olympian  games,  V.  711  ;  VIII.  140;  XL  94;  XVII. 
766. 

Athletae,  III.  II. 

Gymnasium,  XI.  347. 

Roman  games,  X.  65. 

Gladiatorial  games,  X.  632. 

Secular  games  at  Rome,  XXI.  618. 

The  Amphitheatre,  I.  774;  XX.  830. 

The  Collosseum,  II.  419. 

Roman  circus,  V.  791  ;  XX.  829. 

Chariot  races,  X.  64. 

Wrestling,  X.  64. 

In  the  middle  ages  the  most  popular  of  all  amusements 
were   those   connected   with  tournaments,  the  history  of 
which  is  pleasantly  narrated  in  XXIII.  489.     The  knights 
who  engaged  in  these  contests  at  arms,  often  found  amuse- 
ment of  a  lighter  character  in  following  the  chase  in  the  man- 
ner described  in  XII.  393.     The   rearing  and  training  of 
hawks  for  hunting  purposes  was  called  falconry, 
Athletic       and  this  is  the  subject  of  an  interesting  article 
Training.       in  IX.  6-12. 

And  now,  approaching  our  own  times,  read 
the  two  articles  on  Athletic  Sports,  III.  12,  and  sup.  279. 
Both  are  full  of  valuable  information,  especially  regarding 


GAMES,    SPORTS,   AND    PASTIMES.  55 

physical  culture.  They  are  so  full  and  exhaustive  that 
some  of  the  youngest  readers  may  not  care  to  read  them 
throughout ;  and  yet  it  will  pay  to  get  as  many  useful 
hints,  and  suggestions  from  them  as  you  can. 

The  article  on  Athletic  Training  and  Apparatus,  in  the 
supplements,  presents  the  very  latest  facts  and  the  opin- 
ions of  the  best  authorities  on  this  subject. 

The  article  on  Gymnastics,  XL  348,  presents  some  in- 
teresting statements  with  reference  to  the  training  of  the 
body  by  systematic  exercises.  The  best  methods  of  diet- 
ing while  attempting  to  improve  one's  strength  by  physical 
training  are  adequately  described  in  VII.  200. 

See,  now,  Calisthenics,  sup.  658,  and  Delsarte  System, 
sup.  1022. 


PART  II. 


THE  STUDENT. 


57 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THREE   COURSES   OF   READING   IN    HISTORY. 
"History  is  philosophy  teaching  by  examples." — Bolingbroke. 

THE  entire  history  of  man,  from  the  earliest  times  to 
the  present,  will  be  found  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 
Many  of  the  articles  on  historical  subjects  are  chiefly 
valuable  for  purposes  of  reference,  while  others  are  ex- 
tremely interesting  when  read  in  course,  and  if  taken  up 
and  studied  systematically  will  give  to  the  student  a  mas- 
tery of  the  subject  which  he  could  not  well  acquire  from 
any  similar  work. 

It  is  proposed  in  this  chapter  to  indicate  three  distinct 
courses  of  reading,  any  one  of  which  can  be  pursued  in- 
dependently of  the  others.  In  laying  out  these  courses 
the  aim  has  been  to  select  from  the  great  abundance  of 
material  in  the  Britannica  such  portions  as  are  essential 
to  an  understanding  of  the  march  of  events,  and  to  pass 
lightly  over  those  periods  of  history  which  have  been  un- 
prolific  of  events  of  general  and  permanent  interest. 

I.   AMERICAN   HISTORY. 

The  article  AMERICA,  I.  669,  contains  a  section  of 
twenty  pages  devoted  to  ancient  America.  This  will  serve 

as  an  excellent  introduction  to  the  course  of 
Ancient  study  upon  which  we  have  entered.  Here  you 
America.  will  find  a  full  account  of  the  aborigines,  page 

686 ;    their   languages,    page    688  ; 
organization,  page  690;  the  ancient  remains 

" 


60  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 

sissippi  valley  and  other  localities,  page  691  ;  an  account 
of  the  native  civilization,  page  694 ;  and  a  very  interesting 
resume  of  the  curious  traditional  history  of  Central  Amer- 
ica. In  the  articles  MEXICO,  XIV.  206,  and  YUCATAN, 
XXIV.  759,  there  is  a  still  fuller  exposition  of  this  sub- 
ject. In  the  article  PERU,  XVIII.  676,  the  remarkable 
civilization  of  the  country  of  the  Incas  is  described  in  a 
manner  {hat  is  both  pleasing  and  instructive. 

It  is  still,  in  certain  respects,  a  debated  point  as  to  who 

was  the  real  discoverer  of  America.  In  the  article  AMERICA, 

I.  706,  a  full  account  is  given  of  the  voyages 

The  of  the  Northmen  to  the  shores  of  North  Amer- 
Discovery.  jca>  anc}  following  this,  we  have  the  story  of 
Columbus  and  his  discoveries.  Turn  now  to 
the  biography  of  Columbus,  VI.  170.  Read,  also,  the  life 
of  Sebastian  Cabot,  IV.  622,  and  that  of  Amerigo  Ves- 
pucci, XXIV.  192,  who,  by  a  singular  fortune,  gave  his 
name  to  the  New  World.  The  conquest  of  Mexico  is 
well  told  in  the  article  CORTES,  VI.  441,  and  that  of  Peru 
in  the  article  PIZARRO,  XIX.  159. 

THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Begin  with  the  article  UNITED  STATES,  XXIII.  729. 
The  first  part  of  this  article,  containing  seventy-two  pages, 

embraces  a  history  of  our  country  which  is  not 
General  only  more  complete,  but  far  more  readable  than 
Views.  most  of  the  school  text-books  on  this  subject. 

To  add  to  the  value  of  the  article,  it  is  illus- 
trated with  several  maps  : 

1.  A  map  of  the  English  colonies. 

2.  A  map  showing  the  territorial  growth  of  the  United 
States  from  1776  to  1887. 

3.  A  map  of  the  United  States  corrected  to  date. 


THREE   COURSES   OF   READING  IN   HISTORY.  6l 

A  brief  analysis  of  this  article  will  show  us  what  addi- 
tional subjects  may  be  brought  in  by  way  of  collateral 
reading. 

In  connection  with  the  history  of  VIRGINIA,  XXIV.  255, 
read  the  following  articles  or  parts  of  articles : 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  XX.  262. 
John  Smith,  XXII.  173. 

History  of  Tobacco,  XXIII.  423  (one  column). 
Introduction  of  Slavery  into  America,  XXII.  137  (begin- 
ning with  "  Spanish  Colonies,"  second  column,  and  ending 
at  the  bottom  of  page  138). 

In  connection  with  NEW  ENGLAND,  XXIII.  729,  read 
about  the  Puritans,  VIII.  340-346,  376-378  ;  the 
Northern      Pilgrim   Fathers,  sup.  2387 ;     and  Roger  Wil- 
Colonies.       liams,  XXIV.  586. 

In  connection  with  Pennsylvania,  XXIII.  730, 

read  about  William  Penn,  XVIII.  494. 

With  the  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR,  XXIII.  739,  we  reach 

the  period  of  those  great  men  whom  we  justly 

The        style  "  the  fathers/'     Let  us  read  the  biographi- 

Revolution.  cal  sketches  of  a  few  of  these  makers  of  the 

nation  : 

George  Washington,  XXIV.  387. 
Patrick  Henry,  XL  676. 
Thomas  Jefferson,  XIII.  613. 
John  Adams,  I.  141. 
James  Madison,  XV.  182. 
James  Monroe,  XVI.  760. 
Alexander  Hamilton,  XL  412. 

These  articles  will  help  us  to  understand  not  only  the 
period  of  the  Revolution,  but  the  equally  important  pe- 
riods which  followed — the  formation  of  the  FEDERAL 
CONSTITUTION,  XXIII.  744,  and  the  beginnings^  of  the 
government  under  the  Constitution,  XXIII.  751. 


62  GUIDE  TO    THE   BRITANNICA. 

Nullification,  XXIII.  763.  With  this  read  Andrew 
Jackson,  XIII.  533,  and  John  C.  Calhoun,  IV.  683. 

Opposition  to  Slavery,  XXIII.  765.  William  Lloyd 
Garrison,  X.  85.  History  of  Slavery,  XXII. 
(beginning  near  the  bottom  of  page  138  and 
continuing  to  the  middle  of  the  second  column, 
page  142).  Henry  Clay,  V.  817;  Daniel  Web- 
ster, XXIV.  471  ;  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  VII.  377. 

Entering  now  upon  the  period  of  the  CIVIL  WAR  and 
the  reconstruction  which  followed  it,  XXIII.  774-784,  we 
may  read,  for  additional  information,  the  articles  Abra- 
ham Lincoln,  XIV.  658,  U.  S.  Grant,  sup.  1442,  Jefferson 
Davis,  sup.  996,  and  Robert  E.  Lee,  XIV.  399. 

Read  also  the  article  on  the  Confederate  States  of 
America,  sup.  884. 

Before  concluding  this  course  of  reading,  it  will  be  well 
to  notice  another  very  important  article,  or  rather  series  of 
articles,  relating  to  the  history  of  our  country. 
Supplemen-  Among  ^e  articles  comprising  the  American  sup- 
Chapters     plements  to  the  Britanmca  there  are  eighteen 
pages  of  matter,  sup.  2983-3001,  which  should  be 
read,  and  some  of  it  studied  thoroughly.     The  facts  there 
given  are  of  -interest  and  importance  to  every  American 
citizen.     Here  are  the  headings  of  some  of  the  sections : 
The  admission  of  the  several  States,  p.  2985. 
Representatives  in  Congress,  p.  2984. 
Crime  in  the  United  States,  p.  2986. 
Presidential  elections,  p.  2987. 
Centre  of  Population,  p.  2988. 
Recent  History  of  the  United  States,  p.  2993. ' 

II.    ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

In  indicating  the  following  course  of  reading,  an  attempt 
will  be  made  to  cover  all  the  more  important  periods  of 


THREE   COURSES   OF   READING   IN   HISTORY.  63 

ancient  history,  and  at  the  same  time  not  to  mark   out 
more  than  can  be  mastered  within  a  reasonable  length  of 
time.      It   is  possible  that  the  reader  will   enlarge   it  at 
many  points    by  reading   entire   articles,   of    which    only 
parts  are   here  indicated ;  but,  whether  h'e  does   this   or 
not,  he  should  find  himself  at  the  end  of  the  course  pos- 
sessed of  a  good  general  knowledge  of  ancient  history,  of 
its  leading  characters,  and  its  more  interesting 
Oriental      scenes  and  incidents. 

Countries.         EGYPT. — A  long  and  very  scholarly  article  on 
this  country  is  contained  in  the  seventh  volume 
of  the  Britannica.     Read  the  following  sections  with  spe- 
cial care  : 

Description  of  Egypt,  page  702  ;  its  ancient  inhabitants, 
page  713  ;  its  chronology,  page  728  ;  the  Egyptian  dynas- 
ties, page  730 ;  the  twelfth  dynasty,  page  734 ;  the  acces- 
sion of  Ptolemy  I.,  page  745. 

ASSYRIA  AND  BABYLONIA. — Read  the  entire  article  on 
these  countries,  III.  183.  Read  also  the  description  of 
Babylon,  III.  182,  and  of  Nineveh,  XVII.  511  ;  also,  the 
account  of  Jonah,  XIII.  736,  and  that  of  Berosus,  III.  607. 

PHCENICIA. — Read  the  greater  part  of  the  article  under 
this  heading,  and  especially  the  following  sections :  De- 
scription of  Phoenicia,  XVIII.  801,  802;  origin  of  the 
Phoenicians,  page  803  ;  navigation,  trades,  and  colonies, 
pages  804-807.  Read  also  the  articles  Tyre,  XXIII.  710, 
and  Sidon,  XXII.  35. 

PERSIA. — In  volume  XVIII.  of  the  Britannica,  one  hun- 
dred pages  are  devoted  to  Persia.  The  history  of  ancient 
Persia  extends  from  page  561  to  page  616.  If  your  time  is 
limited,  begin  with  the  section  entitled  Medo-Persian  Em- 
pire, page  561  ;  read  the  history  of  Cyrus,  page  564,  and 
of  his  successors,  to  the  accession  of  Artaxerxes,  page  573. 
The  account  of  the  expedition  against  Greece  may  be  de- 


64  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

ferred  until  its   proper   place    is    reached    in    Greek  his- 
tory. 

GREECE. — With  the  history  of  this  country  it  is  neces- 
sary to  spend  much  more  time.  Begin  by  reading  the  whole 
of  Section  I. — "  Greek  History  to  the  Death  of 
Alexander  the  Great" — volume  XL,  pages 
89-105.  For  collateral  reading,  see  the  follow- 
ing articles  :  Troy,  XXIII.  577-582;  Lycurgus, 
XV.  95  ;  Sparta,  XXII.  369  ;  Greek  Games,  X.  64.  While 
studying  the  history  of  Attica,  XI.  95,  refer  to  the  article 
Athens,  III.  I,  and  read  with  particular  care  the  descrip- 
tion given  of  that  city  by  Pausanias,  III.  9.  Solon's  ac- 
count of  his  own  work,  XI.  97,  is  supplemented  by  a 
much  fuller  account  in  the  twenty-second  volume  of  the 
Britannica,  page  253.  Here,  too,  it  will  be  well  to  read 
the  biography  of  Pisistratus,  XIX.  130.  The  events  which 
follow  the  historic  battle  of  Marathon,  IX.  99,  bring 
prominently  forward  the  great  rival  statesmen,  Aristides, 
II.  504,  and  Themistocles,  XXIII.  250.  Then  follows 
the  period  of  Athenian  supremacy,  XI.  100,  and  in  con- 
nection with  it  the  article  on  Pericles,  XVIII.  529,  should 
be  read.  With  the  Theban  supremacy,  read  Epaminon- 
das,  VIII.  456  ;  and,  with  the  decay  of  Greek  civic  life  XL 
103,  study  the  excellent  article  on  Demosthenes,  VII.  67. 
Turn,  now,  to  the  article  MACEDONIAN  EMPIRE,  XV. 
138,  and  read  down  to  the  account  of  the  departure  of 
Alexander  on  his  great  expedition  against  Persia.  From 
this  point,  continue  the  story  with  the  article  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  I.  480.  The  death  of  Alexander,  as 
you  will  learn,  was  the  signal  for  the  breaking  up  of  his 
empire.  Ptolemy,  one  of  his  generals,  established  him- 
self in  Egypt,  VII.  745  ;  Seleucus,  another  general, 
founded  a  new  Persian  empire,  with  its  capital  at  Seleu- 
cia,  on  the  Tigris,  XVIII.  58  ;  and  Antipater,  who  had 


THREE   COURSES   OF   READING   IN   HISTORY.  65 

been  made  regent  of  Macedonia,  maintained  the  integrity 
of  Greece,  XV.  144.  We  need  not  follow  now  the  his- 
tory of  these  fragments  of  Alexander's  great  empire — 
their  wars  with  one  another,  and  their  internal  dissensions. 
A  new  empire  was  about  to  arise  which  should  overpower 
them  all. 

ROME. — The  article  under  this  heading,  XX.  731-837, 
embraces  a  complete  and  very  interesting  sur- 
Roman  vey  of  the  history  of  the  Eternal  City  from  its 
History.  foundation  in  legendary  times  to  the  year  1870. 
Read,  as  a  beginning,  the  first  sixteen  pages  of 
the  article,  to  the  section  entitled,  "  Rome  and  the  Medi- 
terranean States."  Numerous  collateral  references  present 
themselves,  but,  if  your  time  is  limited,  they  may  be  omit- 
ted, and  the  reading  of  the  principal  article  may  be  con- 
tinued. The  story  becomes  very  interesting  now,  and  you. 
need  not  be  told  to  read  it  carefully.  The  second  Punic 
War  brings  to  our  notice  HANNIBAL,  XI.  441,  and  the 
elder  SciPlO,  XXI.  466.  In  connection  with  the  third 
Punic  War  we  shall  read  of  the  younger  Scipio,  XXI. 
468,  and  of  Cato  the  Censor,  V.  239.  Other  collateral 
readings  will  include:  Marius,  XV.  549;  Sulla,  XXIII. 
632;  Cicero,  V.  770;  Catiline,  V.  338;  Pompey,  XIX. 
450;  and  Julius  Caesar,  IV.  633. 

These  readings  ought  to  give  you  a  very  complete 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  Rome,  in  the  palmy  and  he- 
roic days  of  the  Republic,  as  well  as  in  the  period  of  that 
Republic's  degeneracy. 

The  story  of  the  Empire  begins  on  page  769,  of  the 
twentieth  volume  ;  it  ends  with  the  downfall  of  the  West- 
ern Empire  (A.  D.  476),  as  described  on  page  781.  Let  us, 
however,  continue  our  reading  with  the  Eastern  Empire, 
until  it,  too,  is  ended  with  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  A.  D. 
H53-  We  shall  find  this  part  of  the  story  in  the  article 
5 


66  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

GREECE,  XI.  1 10-120,  On  the  thread  of  these  two  articles 
the  following  biographies,  each  in  its  proper  place,  may 
be  strung. 

Augustus,  III.  79;  Tiberius,  XXIII.  335  ;  Nero,  XVII. 
347;  Trajan,  XXIII.  502;  Hadrian,  XI.  363;  Commodus, 
VI.  207  ;  Constantine,  VI.  298  ;  Justinian,  XIII.  792. 

For  further  collateral  reading,  add  the  following  arti- 
cles:  Goths,  X.  846;  Vandals,  XXIV.  58;  Attila,  III.  61. 

This  course  of  reading  embraces  in  the  aggregate  about 

1 50  pages  of  the  Britannica.     By  reading  an  hour  or  so 

regularly  every  evening,  one  may  complete  it  in 

a  short  time ;    and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that 
Conclusion.  . 

the  reader  will  obtain  from  it  a  far  more  satisfac- 
tory view  of  ancient  history  than  can  be  gained 
from  any  of  the  so-called  "  Universal  Histories."  The  rea- 
son is  obvious.  Here  the  subject  is  presented  as  in  a  paint- 
ing, with  a  distinct  background,  and  the  foreground  ap- 
propriately filled  with  lifelike  figures.  It  is  no  mere 
catalogue  of  events  that  you  have  been  studying ;  it  is 
history  itself. 

III.    MODERN   HISTORY. 

The  Mohammedan  Empire. — The  first  part  of  the  article, 
MOHAMMEDANISM,  XVI.  545,  relates  the  story  of  Mo- 
hammed and  the  first  four  caliphs.  Read  this  part  care- 
fully. Then  proceed  to  the  second  part,  XVI. 
The  Arab  $6$>  which  gives  an  account  of  Moslem  con- 
Conquest,  quest  and  dominion  down  to  the  capture  of 
Baghdad  by  Jenghis  Khan,  A.  D.  1258.  The 
most  important  event  for  us  during  this  latter  period  is 
the  conquest  of  Spain,  a  full  account  of  which  may  be 
found  in  the  article  SPAIN,  XXII.  312-315. 

Continental  Europe  from  A.  D.  476  to  A.  D.  1454. — The 
period  of  ten  centuries  which  intervened  between  the  fall 


THREE   COURSES   OF   READING   IN   HISTORY.  67 

of  the  Western  Empire  and  the  capture  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turks  may  be  briefly  studied.     The  Franks  invade 
Gaul,  IX.  528  ;  the  Goths  and  Lombards  establish  them- 
selves  in  Italy,  XIII.  467;  the  Visigoths  gain 
The  control  of  Spain,   XXII.  308  ;  a  new  empire  is 

A*  ese  established  by  CHARLEMAGNE,  V.  402.  This 
brings  us  to  the  year  814.  From  this  point  to 
the  close  of  the  period  only  a  few  events  need  be  noticed. 
The  rise  of  the  feudal  monarchy  in  France,  IX.  536;  the 
Hapsburg  dynasty,  X.  491,  and  III.  124;  the  house  of 
Brandenburg  in  Germany,  XX.  4.  Now  read  the  ac- 
count of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  between  France  and 
England,  IX.  545-551.  This  prepares  us  for  the  study 
of  the  article  on  Feudalism,  IX.  119,  and  the  various 
notices  of  CHIVALRY  indicated  in  the  Index  volume, 
page  96. 

The  chief  events  of  this  period  are  connected  with  the 
Crusades,  which  are  the  subject  of  an  interesting  and  im- 
portant article,  VI.  622.  In  connection  with  the  above- 
named  articles  there  is  room  for  a  good  deal  of  collateral 
reading.  Study  the  following  articles  : 

Venice,  XXIV.  141  ;  Florence,  IX.  333  ;  Medici,  XV. 
783;  Naples,  VII.  191  ;  Hanseatic  League,  XI.  449;  and 
a  part  of  the  article  on  commerce,  VI.  199-201. 

From  A.  D.  1454  to  the  French  Revolution.— Among  the 
important  events  of  this  period  were  the  following : 

The  discovery  of  America,  X.  179-192. 

The  invention  of  printing,  XXIII.  687. 
Modem        The  Reformation,  XX.  319. 
Europe.        The  invention  of  the  steam  engine,  XXII.  473. 
The    study  of  the  history  of  this  period   may 
begin  with  the  RENAISSANCE,  XX.   380.     In   connection 
with  this  study,  refer  to  the  historical  portion  of  each  of 
the  following  articles : 


68  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Austria,  III.  124-131;  Prussia,  XX.  i-ii;  Holland, 
XII.  70-82;  France,  IX.  552-596. 

See  also  Italy,  XIII.  482  ;  Spain,  XXII.  339. 

The  portions  of  this  history  which  will  claim  our  chief 
attention  are:  The  career  of  CHARLES  V.,  X.  413;  the 
struggle  of  the  Netherlands  with  Spain,  XII.  74-77  ;  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  III.  125.  In  connection  with  these, 
read  :  Wallenstein,  XXIV.  328  ;  Gustavus  Adolphus,  XI. 
333;  Louis  XIV.,  IX.  573-583;  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
VIII.  743  ;  Catherine  de  Medici,  V.  235  ;  Peter  the 
Great,  XVIII.  698;  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  IV.  420; 
Frederick  the  Great,  IX.  735  ;  and  Catherine  II.  of  Russia, 
V.  233. 

From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  Time. — The 
leading  article  for  the  study  of  this  period  is  that  on 
FRANCE  from  page  596  to  page  629,  volume 
TheXIXth  IX.  Here  you  may  read  (l)  of  the  Revolution, 
Century,  page  596 ;  (2)  of  the  Republic,  page  604 ;  (3)  of 
the  Empire,  page  615;  (4)  of  the  subsequent 
history  of  France  to  the  close  of  the  presidency  of  M. 
Grevy.  A  supplementary  article,  sup.  1323,  brings  the 
history  of  France  down  to  date.  In  connection  with  the 
above,  read  the  following  biographical  sketches :  Mira- 
beau,  XVI.  492 ;  Marie  Antoinette,  XV.  540 ;  Robes- 
pierre, XX.  60 1  ;  Danton,  VI.  815  ;  Marat,  XV.  526. 

The  history  of  NAPOLEON  fills  thirty-seven  pages  of  the 
Britaitnica,  XVII.  162.  In  connection  with  this  article, 
read  the  following:  Josephine,  XIII.  751  ;  Talleyrand, 
XXIII.  29;  Wellington,  XXIV.  493. 

These  articles  alone  will  give  us  the  best  part  of  the 
political  history  of  Continental  Europe  down  to  the  year 
1815.  The  more  important  events  which  have  since  oc- 
curred outside  of  France  may  then  be  read  : 

The  liberation  of  Greece,  XL  125. 


THREE   COURSES   OF   READING  IN   HISTORY.  69 

The  Crimean  war,  XXI.  102. 

The  unification  of  Italy,  XIII.  466. 

The  Austro-Prussian  war,  X.  502. 

The  Franco-Prussian  war,  X.  503-506. 

And  now  you  will  no  longer  need  the  help  of  the  GUIDE. 
Almost  any  information  that  you  may  desire  can  be  found 
by  turning  to  the  proper  heading  in  the  Britannica  as  in- 
dicated in  the  Index  volume. 

For  events  that  have  occurred  since  1879,  as  we^  as  f°r 
the  biographies  of  men  who  were  living  at  that  time,  it  is 
always  well  to  consult  the  American  supplements.  For 
example,  there  is  no  separate  article  on  Bismarck  in 
the  main  portion  of  the  Britannica;  but  in  the  supple- 
ment, page  478,  there  is  a  complete  biographical  sketch, 
and  in  the  Index  volume  (page  57)  there  are  references 
to  still  other  articles  in  which  he  is  mentioned. 

Here  also  are  to  be  found  articles  relating  to  many  other 
historical  events  of  recent  occurrence.  See 

Home  Rule,  sup.  1602. 

Corea  and  the  war  between  China  and  Japan  in  1895, 
sup.  917. 

The    British    Dominions  —  England.  —  In     the     article 

BRITANNIA,  IV.  352,  an  account  is  given  of  the  ancient 

Britons,  and  of  the  occupancy  of  their  country 

Early          by  the   Romans  previous  to   its  -settlement  by 

Britain.         the  English.     The  historical  part  of  the  article 

ENGLAND  fills  about  one  hundred  pages  (VIIL 

263-367),  which  may  be  read   at    your    odd   moments  of 

leisure     The  history  of  England  since  1874  is  succinctly 

told  in  sup:  1449. 

From  these  articles  alone  you  may  obtain  a  good  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  English  history.  In  connection  with 
them,  however,  it  will  be  profitable  to  read  the  following 
briefer  articles  : 


70  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

William  the  Conqueror,  XXIV.  574. 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  XX.  539. 
Henry  VIII.,  XL  662. 
English  Queen  Mary,  XV.  592. 

Biography.        Lady  Jane  Grey,  XL  193. 

Queen  Elizabeth,  VIII.  142. 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  VII.  389. 
Charles  L,  V.  404. 
Oliver  Cromwell,  VI.  597. 
William  III.,  XXIV.  578. 
Queen  Anne,  II.  62. 
Marlborough,  XV.  553. 
Lord  Chatham,  V.  540. 
Charles  James  Fox,  IX.  494. 
William  Pitt,  XIX.  134. 

Read,  also,  ARMADA,  II.  543,  and  ENGLISH  COSTUMES, 
IV.  465. 

Scotland. — See  an  article  on  SCOTLAND,  XXI.  471-520. 
Read  also  for  an  account  of  specially  important 
Scottish        periods   in   Scottish   history,  the  following  bio- 
History,        graphical  sketches : 

William  Wallace,  XXIV.  326. 
Robert  Bruce,  XX.  592. 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  XV.  594. 

Ireland. — The   historical  part  of  the   article  IRELAND, 
XIII.  214-272,  is  extremely  interesting.     It  includes  such 
topics   as  the  following:  Legendary  history  of 
Irish          Ireland,  page  243  ;  Scottish  conquest  of  Ulster, 
History.        page  246  ;  early  Irish  church,  page  248  ;  Anglo- 
Norman   invasion,  page   258  ;  Cromwell's  cam- 
paign, page  267  ;  James  II.  in  Ireland,  page  286;  struggle 
for  independence,  page  270;  Fenianism,  page  271. 

India. — For   a    history    of    the    English    in    India,    see 
article    INDIA,    XII.    796-812.       Read,    also,    the  biogra- 


THREE  COURSES   OF   READING  IN   HISTORY.  71 

phies  of  Robert  Clive,  VI.  8,  and  Warren  Hastings,  XI. 
512. 

Africa. — For  an  account  of  the  various  possessions  and 

dependencies  in  Africa,  refer  to  the  Index  vol- 

British        ume,  and  read  what   is  said  in  the  Britannica 

Colonies.       with  reference  to  each  of  the  several  colonies 

or  countries.      Study  particularly  the  article  on 

the  present  condition   of  Africa,  sup.  59-83.     Read,  also, 

the  special  articles  on 

Natal,  XVII.  239. 

Cape  Colony,  V.  44-49. 

Rhodesia,  sup.  2544;  Cecil  Rhodes,  sup.  2543. 

Jameson,  L.  S.,  sup.  1721. 

Stanley,  Henry  M.,  sup.  2777. 

Australia. — For  the  history  of  the  exploration  and  set- 
tlement of  this  continent,  see  AUSTRALIA,  III,  103-106.. 

There  still  remain  in  the  Britannica,  hundreds  of  histori- 
cal and  biographical  articles  which  have  not  been  men- 
tioned in  this  chapter.  But  you  can  find  them,  if  need 

be,  without  the  help  of  a  guide.     Having  been 

Other         conducted  thus  far  along  the  road,  you  will  now 

Courses.       have    no   difficulty  in   making   your  own  way. 

With  a  little  study  and  care  you  may  even  mark 
out  another  course  of  historical  reading  for  yourself;  for 
the  Britannica  contains  the  materials  for  very  many  such 
courses. 


72  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FIVE   COURSES   OF   READING   IN   THE   HISTORY   OF 
LITERATURE. 

COURSE   THE   FIRST.— AMERICAN  LITERATURE. 

"  O  strange  New  World,  that  yet  wast  never  young, 
Whose  youth  from  thee  by  gripin'  want  was  wrung, 
Brown  foundlin'  o'  the  woods,  whose  baby  bed 
Was  prowled  round  by  the  Injun's  cracklin'  tread, 
An'  who  grew'st  strong  thru'  shifts  an'  wants  an'  pains, 
Nursed  by  stern  men  with  empires  in  their  brains  !  " 

LET  us  begin  this  study  by  a  review  of  the  history  of 
our  own  literature,  for  it  is  in  the  institutions  and  produc- 
tions of  his  own  country  that  the  pride  and  hope  of 
every  true  American  should  be  centered.  "  The  number 
of  writers  who  have  acquired  some  amount  of  well-founded 
reputation  in  the  United  States  is  startling."  In  the 
course  of  study  which  we  shall  here  offer,  we  can  do  little 
more  than  refer  the  student  to  the  Britannicas  numerous 
biographical  sketches  of  American  writers.  The  special 
article  on  AMERICAN  LITERATURE,  I.  718-735,  written  by 
the  late  Professor  Nichol  of  Glasgow,  is  worthy  of  our 
careful  attention  ;  and  the  first  two  chapters  of  that  article 
should  be  read  by  way  of  introduction  to  the  course  which 
we  have  before  us.  The  first  part  of  the  third  chapter  (I. 
720)  will  introduce  us  to  colonial  literature  and  the  earliest 
American  writers. 


HISTORY   OF   LITERATURE.  73 

Captain  John  Smith,  whose  description  of  Virginia  is 
usually  spoken  of  as  the  first  American  book,  is  the  sub- 
ject of  a  long  and  interesting  article,  XXII. 
Colonial  J73-  But  Smith's  book  can  scarcely  be  called 
Writers.  literature — certainly  not  in  the  better  sense  of 
the  term.  The  first  genuine  literay  work  per- 
formed in  America  was  George  Sandys's  translation  of  the 
works  of  Ovid,  made  on  the  banks  of  the  James  River, 
and  published  in  1626.  See  the  article,  George  Sandys, 
XXI.  262  (also  Ovid,  XVIII.  78).  Of  other  early  writers 
in  America,  there  are  a  few  whose  biographies  should  be 
studied.  Read  the  lives  of  the  great  theologians  and  con- 
troversialists of  colonial  New  England  : 

Roger  Williams,  XXIV.  586. 

John  Cotton,  XII.  726. 

John  Eliot,  the  Apostle  of  the  Indians,  VIII.  136. 

Cotton  Mather,  XV.  631. 

Jonathan  Edwards,  VII.  688. 

Then  turn  to  the  article  on  Benjamin  Franklin,  IX.  711. 
This,  with  the  first  two  columns  of  Chapter  III.,  on  page 
720  of  volume  I.  will  complete  our  study  of  the  Colonial 
Period. 

Concerning  the  orators,  statesmen,  and  poets  who  flour- 
ished during  the  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD  there  is  much 
to  read ;  and  yet  of  the  writings  of  that  period  there 
remains  to  us  but  little  that  is  of  permanent 
Statesmen  literary  value.  Read  what  is  said  on  this  sub- 
and  Poets,  ject  on  pages  721  and  722  of  the  first  volume 
of  the  Britannica.  Read  the  articles  on 

Patrick  Henry,  XL  676. 

Alexander  Hamilton,  XL  412. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  XIII.  613. 

John  Trumbull,  XXIII.  592. 

Joel  Barlow,  III.  377. 


74  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Coming  now  to  the  literature  of  the  NINETEENTH  CEN- 
TURY, let  us  read  first  of  the  great  historians  : 
George  Bancroft,  sup.  334. 

Richard  Hildreth,  sup.  843. 
Brians. 


John  Lothrop  Motley,  XVII.  2. 
Francis  Parkman,  sup.  2296. 
Of  the  orators  : 

Daniel  Webster,  XXIV.  471. 

Henry  Clay,  V.  817. 

John  C.  Calhoun,  IV.  683. 

Edward  Everett,  VIII.  736. 
Of  writers  of  fiction  and  miscellanies  : 
Washington  Irving,  XIII.  372. 

Nathaniel  P.  Willis,  XXIV.  587. 
Novelists,     James  Fenimore  Cooper,  VI.  337. 
etc.          Charles  Brockden  Brown,  IV.  383. 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  XI.  536. 
William  Dean  Howells,  sup.  1625. 
Of  essayists  and  theologians  : 

William  Ellery  Channing,  V.  393. 
Essayists,     Theodore  Parker,  XVIII.  300. 
etc.          Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  sup.  1195. 

Henry  D.  Thoreau,  XXIII.  313. 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  sup.  1598. 
Of  poets  : 
Henry  W.  Longfellow,  XIV.  860. 

Edgar  Allan  Poe,  XIX.  255. 

William  Cullen  Bryant,  sup.  601. 

James  Russell  Lowell,  sup.  1924. 

John  G.  Whittier,  sup.  3146. 
Walt.  Whitman,  sup.  3145. 

Read,  next,  Chapter  IV.,  pages  722-734,  Volume  I. 
The  new  era  in  the  history  of  American  literature  be- 


HISTORY   OF   LITERATURE.  75 

gan  at  about  the  time  of  the  Civil  War.  The  products  of 
that  period,  and  the  characteristics  which  distinguished 
them,  are  described  in  an  able  article  by  F.  L.  Pattee,  in 
sup.  158-165.  See,  also,  American  Drama,  sup.  1076. 

If  the  student  wishes  to  continue  this  course  of  reading 
so  as  to  include  a  still  more  minute  survey  of  our  recent 
literature,  with  a  study  of  the  lives  and  works  of  some  of 
the  later  writers,  he  can  do  so  without  further  direction 

from  the  GUIDE.     By  consulting  the  Index  vol- 

Recent       ume  ne  wdl  be  able  in  most  cases  to  find  any 

Literature,    name  of  real  prominence  in  American  literature. 

A  course  of  reading  pursued  in  the  manner  here 
indicated  cannot  fail  to  impart  a  comprehensive  knowl- 
edge of  the  history  of  our  own  literature.  If  conducted 
in  connection  with  the  reading  of  extracts  from  the  writ- 
ers mentioned,  its  educative  value  can  scarcely  be  over- 
rated. The  readings  may  conclude  with  the  "  Summary," 
I-  734-735- 

COURSE  THE   SECOND — ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 
See  the  special  article  on  English  literature,  VIII.  403. 
This  is   a   long  and   valuable    contribution  by 
Eleven         Thomas  Arnold,  and  should  be  read  in  parts  in 
Periods.        connection  with  the  following  short  articles,  or 
parts  of  articles : 

I.   ANGLO-SAXON   PERIOD,    596-1066. 

The  Venerable  Beda,  III.  480. 
Caedmon,  the  first  English  poet,  IV.  629. 
King  Alfred,  I.  506;  VIII.  404. 
AL\lric,  the  Grammarian,  I.  182.    . 

II.   ANGLO-NORMAN   PERIOD,  1066-1215. 
Romances  and  legends  of  King  Arthur,  V.  322  ;  II.  649 ; 
VIII.  309;  IX.  639. 


76  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Layamon  (i3th  century),  XIV.  374. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (i2th  century),  X.  172. 

III.    THE   TRANSITION   PERIOD,    1215-1350. 

Matthew  Paris  (i3th  century),  XV.  633. 
Duns  Scotus,  VII.  545. 
Roger  Bacon  (died  1292),  III.  218. 
Ormin's  Rhythmic  gospels,  VIII.  395. 
Robert  Manning,  XV.  494. 

IV.    EARLY   ENGLISH    LITERATURE,    1350-1477. 

John  Wickliffe,  XXIV.  708. 

John  Gower,  XI.  21. 

Geoffrey  Chaucer,  V.  449;  VIII.  411. 

John  Lydgate,  XV.  97. 

The  invention  of  printing,  XL  336;  VIII.  413. 

Caxton,  the  first  English  printer,  V.  279;  VIII.  398. 

V.  THE  RENAISSANCE  AND  THE  REFORMATION,   1477-1579. 

Sir  Thomas  More,  XVI.  815. 

John  Skelton,  XXII.  119. 

Henry  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey,  XXII.  694;  XXIV.  704. 

Sir  Thomas  Sackville,  VII.  372. 

Roger  Ascham,  II.  677. 

VI.    THE    ELIZABETHAN   ERA,    1579-1620. 

Sir  Philip  Sidney,  XXII.  35  ;  XVIII.  346. 

Edmund  Spenser,  XXII.  392. 

William  Shakespeare,  XXI.  737. 

Ben  Jonson,  XIII.  741. 

Sir  Francis  Bacon,  III.  200;  VIII.  422. 

VII.    THE   PURITAN   PERIOD,    l62O-l66o. 

Jeremy  Taylor,  XXIII.  93. 
Edmund  Waller,  XXIV.  330. 


HISTORY   OF  LITERATURE.  77 

Abraham  Cowley,  VI.  532. 

Thomas  Hobbes,  XII.  31. 

John  Milton,  XVI.  324;  XIX.  267. 

VIII.    PERIOD   OF  THE   RESTORATION,    1660-1700. 

John  Dryden,VII.  488. 

Samuel  Butler,  IV.  588;  XXL  319. 

John  Bunyan,  IV.  526. 

John  Locke,-XIV.  751. 

IX.   IN   THE   AGE   OF   QUEEN   ANNE,    1700-1727. 

Daniel  Defoe,  VII.  26. 
Joseph  Addison,  I.  146. 
Alexander  Pope,  XIX.  481. 
Dean  Swift,  XXII.  761  ;  XXI.  320. 

X.   THE   GEORGIAN   ERA,    1727-1800. 

William  Cowper,  VI.  533. 
Robert  Burns,  IV.  566. 
Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan,  XXI.  797. 
Samuel  Richardson,  XX.  543. 
Henry  Fielding,  IX.  142  ;  XXI.  320. 
Laurence  Sterne,  XXII.  541. 
Samuel  Johnson,  XIII.  719. 
Oliver  Goldsmith,  X.  760. 
David  Hume,  XII.  346. 
Edward  Gibbon,  X.  572. 
William  Robertson,  XX.  599. 
Bishop  Butler,  IV.  582;  I.  792. 

XL   THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Sir  Walter  Scott,  XXL  544. 
Lord  Byron,  IV.  604 ;  XXI.  320. 
Percy  Bysshe  Shelley,  XXL  789. 


78  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Robert  Southey,  XXII.  289. 
William  Wordsworth,  XXIV.  668;  XIX.  271. 
Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge,  VI.  135. 
John  Keats,  XIV.  22. 
Alfred  Tennyson,  sup.  2877. 
Robert  Browning,  sup.  592. 
Charles  Dickens,  VII.  173. 
William  M.  Thackeray,  XXIII.  214;  XXI.  320. 
George  Eliot  (Mrs.  Mary  Ann  Cross),  sup.  951. 
Sir  Edwin  Arnold,  sup.  243. 
Matthew  Arnold,  sup.  244. 
Thomas  Carlyle,  sup.  701. 
John  Richard  Green,  sup.  1460. 
John  Ruskin,  sup.  2589. 
Poet  Laureate,  sup.  1841. 

Read  now  the  article  on  CANADIAN  LITERATURE,  sup. 
675-677 

COURSE   THE   THIRD — ANCIENT   LITERATURE. 

I.  Greek  Literature. — The  article  on  Greek  literature, 
XL  136,  is  a  comprehensive  sketch  of  the  literary  devel- 
opment of  Greece,  showing  how  its  successive 
Greek  periods  were  related  to  each  other,  and  marking 
Writers.  the  dominant  characteristics  of  each.  It  should 
be  read  in  parts,  in  connection  with  the  separate 
articles  relating  to  the  lives  and  particular  works  of  Greek 
writers.  The  study  of  this  literature  naturally  begins 
with  the  Homeric  hymns  and  with  the  two  great  epics, 
the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey.  See  the  article  Homer,  XII.  108. 

After  this  read  the  following  articles  on  three  great 
poets  of  ancient  Greece  : 

Hesiod,  XL  777. 

Simonides,  XXII.  83. 

Pindar,  XIX.  98. 


HISTORY   OF   LITERATURE.  79 

This  brings  us  to  the  GREEK  DRAMA.     Read  the  first 
two    paragraphs  on  the  Attic  Literature,   XL 
The  H0;  tnen  turn  to  the  article  DRAMA,  VII.  403, 

Drama.         and  read  the  six  pages  devoted  to  Greek  drama. 
After  this  take  up  each  of  the  great  dramatists 
separately,  the  tragedians  first : 
^Eschylus,  I.  208. 
Sophocles,  XXII.  271. 
Euripides,  VIII.  673. 

Then  re-read  what  is  said  of  GREEK  COMEDY,  VII.  407, 
and  study  the  article  on  the  great  comic  dramatist,  Aris- 
tophanes, II.  507. 

PROSE   WRITERS   will   next   claim    our   attention,  and 
especially  the  great  historians,  Herodotus,  XL 
75<5 ;  Xen°Phon>  XXIV-  720>  and  Thucydides, 
Orators       XXIII.  322.     After  these  make  a  short  study  of 
the  Greek  orators,  XL   142,  and  especially   of 
Demosthenes,  VII.  67,  and  of  Isocrates,  XIII.  388. 

The  Greek  philosophers  will  then  come  in  for  brief  men- 
tion.    Read  the  biographical  portion  of  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing articles : 
Phiioso-       Socrates,  XXII.  231. 

phers.  Plato,  XIX.   194. 

Aristotle,  II.  510. 

Attention  may  now  be  given  to  the  chapter  entitled, 
THE  LITERATURE   OF  THE   DECADENCE,  in    XL   142, 
wherein  is  given  a  brief  survey  of  the  literary  history  of 
the  Alexandrian  and  Graeco-Roman  periods  of 
Later         intellectual  activity.     Here  a  number  of  inter- 
Writers,       esting  names  present  themselves.     In  the  de- 
partment of  pastoral  poetry,  we  shall  read  of 
Theocritus,  XXII.  252,  and  of  his  disciples  and  imitators, 
Bion,  III.  696,  and  Moschus,  XVI.  855.  In  the  field  of  criti- 
cism we  shall  learn  of  Aristarchus,  II.  504,  whose  studies, 


8O  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

with  those  of  his  disciples,  gradually  formed  the  basis  for 
the  science  of  grammar.  In  mathematics  we  find  the 
noted  name  of  Euclid,  VIII.  655.  In  prose  fiction  we 
have  Lucian,  XV.  42,  the  inventor  of  the  art  of  the  story- 
writer.  In  history  we  have  Josephus,  the  historian  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  XIII.  751.  In  biography,  Plutarch  stands 
forth  preeminent,  XIX.  232.  In  geography  appears  the 
noted  name  of  Strabo.  In  rhetoric  we  have  Cassius 
Longinus,  XIV.  864,  the  reputed  author  of  the  still 
famous  essay  on  Sublimity.  In  philosophy  are  the  great 
names  of  Epictetus,  VIII.  471,  and  Marcus  Aurelius, 
III.  86. 

But  it  is  time  to  bring  these  readings  in  Greek  literature 
to  a  close.  It  would  of  course  be  easy  to  extend  them 
almost  indefinitely ;  and  the  student  who  wishes  to  do  so 
may,  by  referring  to  the  numerous  articles  devoted  to  the 
lives  of  famous  Greek  writers,  continue  it  to  almost  any 
desired  length. 

2.  Roman  Literature. — In  the  department  of  Roman 
literature  we  shall  take  as  the  basis  for  our  studies  the  very 
comprehensive  and  scholarly  article  on  that  subject  in 
XX.  715-727.  This  article,  which  gives  a  general  survey 
of  the  progress  of  literature  during  the  different 
First  periods  of  Roman  history,  should  be  read  in 

Period.  sections,  with  constant  reference  to  the  sep- 
arate articles  devoted  to  the  lives  of  the  most 
famous  Latin  writers  In  connection  with  the  chapter 
on  the  first  period  (from  240  B.  C.  to  about  80  B.  c.)f  read 
the  account  of  the  ROMAN  DRAMA,  VII.  409,  412.  Then 
study  the  history  of  the  early  Roman  dramatists  : 

Naevius,  XVII.  161.  Plautus,  XIX.  215. 

Ennius,  VIII.  447.  Terence,  XXIII.  186. 

In  connection  with  the  chapter  on  the  second  period 
(80  B.  C.  to  42  B.  C.),  read  the  following  special  articles : 


HISTORY   OF   LITERATURE.  8 1 

Second         Cicero,  V.  77.  Caesar,  IV.  633. 

Period.         Sallust,  XXI.  219.     Lucretius,  XV.  50. 

With  the  third  period  (42  B.  c.  to   17  A.  D.)  we  enter 

upon  the  study  of  the  AUGUSTAN  AGE  OF  R.O- 

Third          MAN  LITERATURE,  III.  82-84.     Here  a  noble 

Period.         list  of  names  is  presented,  demanding  a  special 

study  of  the  following  biographical  articles : 

Virgil,  XXIV.  248.  Horace,  XII.  159. 

Ovid,  XVIII.   78.  Livy,  XIV.  725. 

During  the  fourth  period,  extending  for  more  than  a 
century  (17  A.  D.  to  130  A.  D.),  Roman  literature  continues 
to  flow  in  the  old  channels,  but  there  is  a  mani- 
Fourth  test  deterioration  in  almost  every  department 
Period.  of  literary  effort.  And  yet  among  the  drama- 
tists we  have  Persius  XVIII.  661,  and  Juvenal 
XIII.  804;  among  historians,  Tacitus,  XXIII.  19;  among 
philosophers,  Seneca,  XXI.  658  ;  among  rhetoricians,  Quin- 
tilian,  XX.  187  ;  and  among  poets,  Martial,  XV.  577,  and 
Statius,  XXI 1. 466.  "  The  last  writer  who  combines  genius 
with  something  of  national  spirit,  is  the  poet  Claudian  (V. 
815),  who  wrote  his  epics  under  the  immediate  inspiring 
influence  of  a  great  national  crisis  and  a  national  hero/' 
After  him  there  is  perhaps  only  one  Latin  writer  whose 
life  and  works  are  deserving  of  study  in  this  connection. 
That  writer  is  Boetius  (III.  855),  who  lived  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury of  our  era,  and  who  is  described  by  Gibbon  as  "  the 
last  of  the  Romans  whom  Cato  or  Tully  could  have 
acknowledged  for  their  countryman." 

COURSE  THE  FOURTH — FOURTEEN   GREAT  LITERATURES. 

1.  Hebrew.— XI.  597.      The  Bible,  III.  634-641  ;   Early 
Israelitish  literature,  XIII.  408  ;   the  Talmud,  XXIII.  35  ; 
the  Midrash,  XVI.  285  ;   the  Mishnah,  XVI.  502. 

2.  Sanserif.— XXL  273-286. 


82  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

3.  Persian.— XVIII.  655. 

4.  Greek. — XI.    136.      Homer,   XII.    108 ;    Xenophon, 
XXIV.  720;    Demosthenes,  VII.  67. 

5.  Roman. — XX.  715-727.     Caesar,  IV.  633  ;    Cicero,  V. 
770;   Augustan  Age,  III.  82;    Virgil,  XXIV.  248;    Ovid, 
XVIII.  78  ;  Livy,  XIV.  725. 

6.  Chinese. — V.  653. 

7.  French. — IX.  637.     Rabelais,  XX.   193  ;    Montaigne, 
XIV.  767;  Corneille,  VI.  417;    Pascal,  XVIII.  333;    Mo- 
liere,  XVI.  624;   La  Fontaine,  XIV.  203;   Racine,  XX. 
203;  Boileau,  III.  863;  Bossuet,  I V.  70  ;  Voltaire,  XXIV. 
285  ;    Rousseau,    XXI.    23 ;  Victor  Hugo,  IX.  676,    sup. 
1629  ;  Cousin,  V.  521  ;  Guizot,  XL  268  ;  Dumas,  VII.  521  ; 
George  Sand,  VII.  507  ;  Emile  Zola,  sup.  3231  ;  the  French 
Academy,  sup.  31. 

8.  German. — X.  522.     Luther,  XV.  71;  Arndt,  II.  622  ; 
Wieland,    XXIV.  558;  Lessing,  XIV.  478;  Herder,  XL 
727;  Goethe,   X.  721;  Schiller,  XXL   395;  Novalis,  XL 
472;    Hegel,    XL  612;  Heine,  XL  625;  Paul  Heyse,  X. 
545  ;  Spielhagen,  X.  545  ;  Fritz  Reuter,  XX.  494 ;  Auer- 
bach,   169  sup.;  Freytag  X.  545,  sup.   1343  ;   Ebers,   sup. 

1 1 10. 

9.  Italian.— XIII.    498.       Dante,     VI.  809;     Petrarch, 
XVIII.  706;    Boccaccio,  III.  842;  Ariosto,  II.  502;  Al- 
fieri,  I.  502  ;  Carducci,  sup.  697. 

10.  Spanish. — XXII.  252.     Lope  de  Vega,  XXIV.  121  ; 
Cervantes,  V.  347 ;  Calderon,  IV.  659. 

11.  Russian.— XXI.  102;  Turgenieff,  XXIII.  488  ;  Tol- 
stoi, sup.  2923 ;  Gogol,  X.  738  ;  Marie  BashkirtsefT,  sup. 

373- 

12.— Swedish.— XXII.  753.  Tegner,  XXIII.  no;  Fred- 
erika  Bremer,  IV.  256;  Runeberg,  XXI.  60;  Topelius, 
XXII.  758  ;  Rydberg,  sup.  2595. 

13.     Norwegian. — XVII.    589.     Bjornstjerne  Bjornson, 


HISTORY   OF   LITERATURE.  83 

sup.  481.      Henrik    Ibsen,  sup.    1645;    Asbjornsen,    sup. 
260. 

14.  Danish.— Nil.    89.      Oehlenschlager,    XVII.    730; 
Hans  Christian  Andersen,  sup.  178. 

COURSE  THE  FIFTH — GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  SUBJECT 
(FOR  ADVANCED  STUDENTS). 

Prose  Literature. — Let    us  begin  our  general  study  of 
prose  literature  by  reading  the  article  on  History,  XII. 
19,     Numerous  collateral  and  additional  references  relat- 
ing to  the  same  subject  will  suggest  themselves,  and  should 
be  traced  out  and  studied.     Among  these  are  the  follow- 
ing:    Influence    of    history    upon    the    development    of 
culture,  II.   121  ;  relation  of  history  to    evolution,  VIII. 
759;  the  philosophy  of  history,  XVIII.  796;  relation  of 
history  to  archaeology,  II.  334,  etc.     Following  the  read- 
ing of  these,  we  may  make  a  brief  study  of  the 
distinctive  features  of  the  works  of  certain  great 
historians.     For  example,  read  what  is  said  of 
Herodotus,  XL    758;    of  Thucydides,  XXIII. 
325  ;  of  Livy,  XIV.  726;  of  Sallust,  XXL  219;  of  Tacitus, 
XXIII.  20;  of  Villehardouin,  XXIV.  229;  of  Robertson, 
XX.  599;  of  Hallam,  XL  393;  of  Macaulay,  XV.  128. 

Fiction.- — Read  the  special  article  on  Romance,  XX.  632  ; 
also  the  article  by  Andrew  Lang,  entitled,  TALES,  XXIII. 
27.     Let  this  be  followed  by  a  study  of  the  romance  lit- 
erature of  different  countries.     Observe  what  is  said  of 
French  romance,  IX.  638  ;  of  Germany,  X.  527  ; 
of  Spanish,  XXII.  354;  of  Arabian,  XXIII.  5  ; 

Fiction.  ..   -,.        .          xrTTTTT     -  . 

of  Persian,  XVIII.  657.     As  to  romanticism  in 
English    literature,  see    XX.  857.      The   influ- 
ence of  romanticism  upon  French  literature  is  described 
in  IX.  675  ;  and  upon  German  literature,  in  X.  541. 


84  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

The  Drama. — Read  the  very  comprehensive  article  on 
the  drama,  VII.  391.     Study  about  the  drama  in  the  time 
of  Shakespeare,   XXI.   759  ;    about  the   Greek 
drama,  XI.  140  ;  about  the  French  drama,  IX. 
644;    about   the   Spanish    drama,    XXII.    356; 
about  the  miracle-plays,  V.  324.     Read  the  spe- 
cial article  on  the  theatre,  XXIII.  222. 

Poetry. — The  scholarly  article  on  Poetry,  XIX.  256-273, 

is  worthy  of  careful  study.     It  would  be  well  to 

read  it  by  paragraphs,  making  reference  in  the 

meanwhile   to   additional   articles  on    the    lives 

and  works  of  the  great  poets  therein  mentioned. 

Read  Wordsworth's  theory  of  poetry,  XXIV.  670.     See 

what  is  said  of  poetry  as  a  fine  art,  IX.  207. 

Satire. — Read     the   article    on    satire,    XXI. 
317.     Study  the   lives  and  works  of  the  great 
modern  satirists  :  Rabelais,  XX.  193  ;  Voltaire, 
XXIV.  285;  Dean  Swift,  XXII.  761  ;  Thacke- 
ray, XXIII.  214,  etc. 

SUPPLEMENTARY   COURSE. — BOOKS   AND   LIBRARIES. 

This  course  may  consist  chiefly  of  a  study  of  the  two 
important  articles  on  books,  XVIII.  144,  and  libraries, 
XIV.  509. 

The  Advocates'  Library,  sup.  53. 

Astor  Library,  sup.  272. 

Boston  Public  Library,  sup.  527. 

Libraries  in  Chicago,  sup.  783. 

See  "  Some  Bookish  Subjects  "  in  the  chapter  entitled 
The  Bookman,  in  this  GUIDE. 

For  libraries  in  the  United  States,  see  XIV.  534,  and 
sup.  1873.  An  interesting  account  of  the  Library  of  Con- 
gress is  given  in  the  article  beginning  on  page  3139, 
supplements. 


PHILOLOGY  AND  HISTORY  OF  LANGUAGE.  85 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

READINGS     IN     PHILOLOGY    AND    THE    HISTORY    OF 
LANGUAGE. 

"  They  have  been  at  a  great  feast  of  languages." — Love1  s  Labottr  Lost. 

PHILOLOGY  is  that  branch  of  knowledge  which  deals 
with  human  speech,  and  with  all  that  speech  discloses  as 
to  the  nature  and  history  of  man.  In  the  following 
courses  of  reading  it  is  proposed  to  give  a  general  survey 
of  the  principal  languages  of  the  world,  their  history  and 
the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  each.  These  courses 
may  be  considered  as  either  prefatory  or  supplementary 
to  the  courses  already  indicated  for  readings  in  the  his- 
tory of  literature.  A  fairly  good  knowledge  of  general 
history,  such  as  may  be  acquired  from  the  readings  desig- 
nated in  Chapter  VI.  of  this  volume,  will  add  very  much 
to  your  ability  to  appreciate  and  fully  understand  the 
courses  which  follow. 

COURSE  NO.  I. 

Begin  with  the   article   PHILOLOGY,   XVIII.   765,  and 

read  carefully  that  part  which  relates  to   the  science  of 

language   in   general,   pp.   765-778.     This   will 

give  a  general  view  of  the  subject,  and  prepare 
Philology.  ,   £  ... 

you  for  the  more  specific   study  of   particular 

languages.     The  following  articles,  or  parts  of 
articles,  may  then  be  read  : 

History  of  language  (article  ANTHROPOLOGY^fpTrT1. 


86  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Theories  of  evolution  with   respect  to  language,  VIII. 

769. 

Language  and  ethnology,  VIII.  621. 

Language  and  thought,  XX.  751. 

Language  and  mythology,  XVII.  137. 

ARYAN  LANGUAGES,  II.  697  and  XVIII.  778  a.  To  this 
family  of  languages  belong  ten  groups  or  sub-families,  as 
follows : 

i.  Sanskrit.— XXI.  269;  XI.  841. 

Aryan       2-  Iranian. — XVIII.  134. 
Languages.  3.  Armenian. — II.  549. 

4.  Greek. — XI.  126.  See  also  Greek  litera- 
ture ;  and  learn  about  the  Romaic  dialects  which  origi- 
nated in  the  Greek,  XI.  135. 

5.  Albanian.— XVIII.  784. 

6.  Italic. — This  group  includes  the  Latin  language,  for 
a  full  history  of  which  see  XIV.   327.     From  the   Latin 
have  sprung  the  Romance  languages,  which  are  the   sub- 
ject of  a  valuable  article  in  XX.  661.     The  great  modern 
Romance  languages  are  each  treated  in  a  separate  article, 
as  follows  : 

(1)  Italian,  XIII.  491  ;  XIV.  340. 

(2)  Spanish,  XXII.  346. 

(3)  Portuguese,  XIX.  555. 

(4)  Provencal,  XIX.  867. 

(5)  French,  IX.  629. 

(6)  Ladino,  XIII.  492. 

(7)  Roumanian,  XXIV.  269. 

7.  Celtic. — This    group    of    languages    is    treated  very 
briefly  in  XVIII.  785,  and  more  fully  in  V.  297. ' 

(1)  The  Gaelic  language,  which  is  a  branch  of  the  Celtic, 
is  the  subject  of  a  separate  article  in  X.  6.     Other  branches 
are  treated  as  follows  : 

(2)  Irish,  V.  298. 


PHILOLOGY   AND   HISTORY  OF  LANGUAGE.  87 

(3)  Armoric,  V.  324. 

(4)  Cornish  (dialect),  V.  298. 

(5)  Welsh,  ¥.298,314- 

8.  Germanic  or  Teutonic. — This  great  sub-family  com- 
prises two  groups,  known  as  the  Eastern  Germanic  and 
Western  Germanic  languages.     In  the  former  group  be- 
long the  Gothic  language,  X.  852,  and  the  Scandinavian 
branch,  XXI.  366.     Of  the  Scandinavian  languages  there 
are  two  subdivisions  :  (i)  the  Eastern  Scandinavian,  which 
comprises, 

Swedish,  XXI.  370. 

Danish,  VII.  89,  and  XXI.  373. 
and  (2)  the  Western  Scandinavian,  which  comprises, 

Norwegian,  XXI.  369. 

Icelandic,  XII.  627. 

The  Western  Germanic  languages  are  each  treated  in  a 
separate  article : 

(1)  English,  VIII.  390. 

(2)  Frisian,  IX.  788. 

(3)  German,  X.  514. 

(4)  Dutch,  XII.  84. 

9.  Baltic. — This    group    embraces   three    unimportant 
groups,  the  first  of  which,  Prussian,  is  now  extinct  (see 
XVIII.  785).     The  other  two  are  the  Lithuanian,  XXII. 
148,  and  the  Lettish,  briefly  referred  to  in.  VII.  188,  and 
XVIII.  785. 

10.  Slavonic. — XXII.  147.     Of  this  group  there  are  two 
divisions,  the  Southern  and  the  Western.     The  former  in- 
cludes the  following  languages : 

(1)  Russian,  XXI.  109.  / 

(2)  Ruthenian,  XIX.  309. 

(3)  Bulgarian,  XXII.  149. 

(4)  Servian,  XVIII.  544;  XXII.  150. 

(5)  Slovenish,  XXII.  150. 


88  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

The  latter  or  Western  division  includes, 

(1)  Bohemian,  XXII.  151. 

(2)  Polish,  XVIII.  785;  XXII.  150. 

The  GUIDE  has  presented  above  a  brief  outline  for  the 
study  of  the  Aryan  families  of  languages.  The  student 
who  follows  this  course  of  reading  carefully  will  have  ac- 
quired no  small  knowledge  of  the  science  of  philology, 
and  he  will  be  prepared,  by  way  of  review,  to  study  the 
second  part  of  the  article  on  that  subject,  XVIII.  781-790. 

COURSE  NO.  II. 

A  second  and  shorter  course  of  study  in  philology  might 
include  the  Semitic  family  of  languages.  To  this  family 
belong : 

(i)  The  Hebrew  language,  XI.  594. 
Semitic      (2)  The  Phoenician,  XXI.  641. 
Languages.  (3)  The  Assyrian,  III.  192. 
(4)  The  Syriac,  II.  307.  > 

(5)  The  Arabic,  X.  595. 

(6)  The  Abyssinian,  XVI.  654. 

By  way  of  supplementing  this  course,  a  short  time  may 
be  spent  in  tracing  the  history  and  peculiarities  of  the 
third  great  family  of  languages,  the  Hamitic  (see  XVIII. 
778).  Here  we  have  : 

(1)  The  Egyptian  language,  VII.  721. 

(2)  The  Lybian  languages,  XVIII.  778. 

(3)  The  Ethiopic  languages,  I.  263. 

A  great  many  other  languages  and  dialects  receive  no- 
tice  in  the  Britannica.     Not  only  students  of  philology, 
but    many   curious  readers   will  be  pleased   to 
learn  something  about  the  language  of  the  Gip- 

Studies.      s*es»  X-  6J3  ;  t^iat  °f  t^ie  Papuans,  XVIII.  231  ; 

that  of  the  Hottentots,  II.  312;  or  that  of  the 

Kurds,  XIV.  157.     But  we    need  enumerate  no  further. 


PHILOLOGY  AND   HISTORY   OF   LANGUAGE.  89 

We  have  conducted  the  student  to  a  point  whence  he  will 
now  be  able  to  proceed  in  his  researches  without  the  help 
of  a  guide. 

Here  are  a  few  subjects  of  general  interest,  which  it  is 
well  to  know  about : 

Grammar,  XL  37. 
Of  General    Dictionaries,  VII.  179. 
Interest.      Americanisms,  sup.  154. 

Volapiik,  sup.  3060. 

See  now  the  references  in  the  chapter  on  The  History 
of  Literature  in  this  GUIDE  ;  also  those  in  the  chapter  en- 
titled The  Writer. 


90  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

READINGS   IN  ASTRONOMY. 

"  And  let  my  lamp  at  midnight  hour 
Be  seen  in  some  high  lonely  tower, 
Where  I  may  oft  outwatch  the  Bear 
With  thrice  great  Hermes  ;  or  unsphere 
The  Spirit  of  Plato,  to  unfold 
What  world  or  what  vast  regions  hold 
The  immortal  mind." 

— John  Milton. 

THERE  are  two  classes  of  persons  who  will  be  helped 
by  the  courses  of  scientific  reading  proposed  in  this  chap- 
ter, and  in  those  which  follow :  (i).  The  young  man  or 
young  woman  who  is  attempting  to  pursue  some  method 
of  self-instruction  at  home,  and  is  not  yet  prepared  to 
grapple  with  the  most  difficult  problems  of  science.  (2). 

The  student  who  is  already  well  started  on  the 

5  way,  and  is  anxious  to  extend  and  supplement 

Students      ^e  information  which  he  has  acquired  from 

teachers  and  text-books,  until  he  shall  have 
gotten  down  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  subjects  which 
he  is  studying.  The  first  class  will,  as  a  general  rule,  be 
profited  most  by  the  shorter  and  more  popular  articles  in 
the  Britannica;  the  second  will  often  find  in  the  special 
and  more  technical  articles  just  that  kind  of  thorough- 
ness and  comprehensiveness  which  scholars  admire  and 
desire,  and  from  which  they  alone  are  able  to  derive  the 


READINGS   IN  ASTRONOMY.  9 1 

greatest  benefit.  It  is  here  that  the  superiority  of  the 
Britannica  over  every  other  work  of  reference  is  most 
apparent — it  has  articles  adapted  to  the  needs  and  com- 
prehension of  every  class  of  readers. 

The  following  readings  in  astronomy  are  intended  for 
students  who  have  attained  to  some  proficiency  in  the 
science ;  and  yet  an  effort  has  been  made  to  meet  the 
wants  of  the  self-taught  home  student  as  well  as  those  of 
the  specialist  and  the  scholar. 

The  home  student  should  read  the  historical  portion  of 
the  article  on  ASTRONOMY,  beginning  on  page  744  of  vol- 
ume II.,  and  ending  on  page  763.  He  will  find  this  chap- 
ter quite  comprehensive,  including  nearly  ten 
istory  pages  Of  the  Britannica,  and  giving  an  account 
Astronomy  °^  t^ie  Progress  of  astronomical  science  from 
the  earliest  ages  down  to  the  present  time. 
The  college  student  will  find  the  entire  article  on  astron- 
omy (sixty  pages  in  all),  II.  744,  to  be  more  complete 
and  satisfactory  than  most  school  text-books  on  the  sub- 
ject. The  fact  that  it  was  written  by  Prof.  R.  A.  Proc- 
tor, the  most  famous  of  our  later  astronomers,  is  sufficient 
guarantee  of  its  accuracy.  The  supplementary  article, 
beginning  on  page  273  of  the  supplement,  contains  an  ac- 
count of  all  the  important  discoveries  that  have  been  made 
within  the  past  twenty  years. 

Still  pursuing  the  study  of  the  history  of  this  subject, 
read  the  entertaining  article  on  ASTROLOGY,  II.  738,  and 
see  what  is  said  of  astronomy  in  Arabia,  II.  264.     After 
that,  read  the  biographies  of  the  most  famous 
Astrono-      astronomers,  ancient  and  modern  : 
mers.  Thales,  XXIII.  217. 

Aristarchus,  II.  504. 

Hipparchus,  XL  851. 

Ptolemy,  XX.  87. 


92  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Copernicus,  VI.  346. 

Galileo,  X.  30. 

Tycho  Brahe,  IV.  200. 

The  Herschels,  XL  765,  768. 

John  Kepler,  XIV.  45. 

Laplace,  XIV.  301. 

Richard  A.  Proctor,  sup.  2453. 

Camille  Flammarion,  sup.  1286. 

Samuel  P.  Langley,  sup.  1831. 

Simon  Newcomb,  sup.  2169. 

You  are  now  prepared  to  enter  upon  the  study  of  de- 
scriptive Astronomy.  Begin  with  the  SOLAR  SYSTEM,  and 
read  what  Professor  Proctor  says  of  the  sun  in  II.  768; 
then  turn  to  J.  Norman  Lockyer's  scholarly  ar- 
The  Solar  tide  on  the  same  subject,  XXII.  645.  The 
System.  nebular  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  sun  and 
planets  will  next  claim  your  attention ;  and  of 
this  you  will  find,  in  XVII.  310,  a  full  exposition  and  discus- 
sion by  Dr.  R.  S.  Ball,  the  distinguished  Irish  astronomer. 
The  latest  discoveries  regarding  the  distance  of  the  sun 
are  described  in  sup.  275. 

And  now,  before  proceeding  farther,  it  will  be  interest- 
ing to  notice  some  curious  facts  concerning  the  manner 
in  which  people  of  all  ages  and  different  nation- 
Sun  alities  have  regarded  the  sun.  Among  other 
Worship,  things,  we  shall  learn  how  it  was  worshipped  by 
the  Sabaeans,  XXIV.  741  ;  by  the  Phoenicians, 
XVIII.  802;  by  the  Greeks,  II.  185  ;  and  by  the  ancient 
Peruvians,  I.  697. 

Read  what  is  said  of  solar  myths,  XVII.  157,' and  XV. 
777  a;  also  the  myth  of  Phaethon,  XVIII.  727;  that  of 
Adonis,  I.  153;  and  that  of  Apollo,  II.  185. 

Festivals  to  the  sun  were  held  at  Heliopolis,  see  XIX. 
91,  and  also  in  Japan,  XIX.  92  ;  and  one  of  the  most  fa- 


READINGS   IN  ASTRONOMY.  93 

mous  temples  in  the  world  was   that  of  the  sun  at  Baal- 
bee,  see  III.  177. 

Resuming  the  subject  of  descriptive  astronomy,  and  the 
study  of  the  solar  system,  read  next  of  the  PLANETS  in 
their  order : 

Mercury,   II.   777;  Venus,  II.  782;   XIV.  582,  XVIII. 
246,  and  II.  754  and  796 ;  the  place  of  the  Earth 
The  m  the  solar  system,  II.  766,  and  X.  214;  Mars, 

Planets.  XIV.  46,  and  II.  776,  796;  the  Asteroids,  JI. 
736,  806,  and  sup.  271  ;  Jupiter,  XVI.  250  and 
II.  782,  808;  Uranus,  II.  758,  XI.  767,  and  II.  782  ;  Nep- 
tune, XIV.  487,  and  II.  782,  813.  Olbers's  theory  of  the 
origin  of  the  asteroids  is  given  in  a  brief  biographical  ar- 
ticle on  that  great  German  astronomer,  XVII.  752 ;  and 
the  most  recent  facts  concerning  those  interesting  bodies 
are  stated  in  sup.  271. 

The  article  on  the  MOON,  XVI.  798,  next  claims  atten- 
tion.    The  moon  is  also  described  in  II.  774,  782. 
The  For  its  motion,  see  XI.  74;  for  its  phases,  II. 

Moon.          797  ;  for  its  influence  on  the  tides,  XXIII.  353- 
356,  365,  368 ;  for  its  influence  on   atmospheric 
pressure,  XVI.  124.    The  legends  and  myths  of  the  moon 
are  duly  noticed  in  XL  680,  and  XVII.  157. 

Many  interesting  things  are  told  about  ECLIPSES.     For 
the  nature  and  causes  of  eclipses,  see  II.  788 
and  802  ;  turn  also  to  XIV.  581,  and  XXII.  650. 
Some  historical  facts  with  relation  to  the  obser- 
vation   of   these    phenomena    are    interesting. 
The  Chinese  have  very  ancient  records  of  such  observa- 
tions, see  II.  745.     The  Assyrians  also  kept  similar  rec- 
ords, III.  191. 

Read  what  is  said  about  COMETS,  II.  813.  The  article 
on  this  subject,  VI.  182,  belongs  to  mathematical  astron- 


94  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

omy.  Notice  Kepler's  theories,  XIV.  47;  Leverrier's,  XI V. 
486  ;  and  Olbers's,  XVII.  752.  Recent  observa- 
tions on  comets  are  described  by  Professor  Simon 

Comets. 

Newcomb  in  sup.  275.     For  Biela  s  comet,  see 
VI.  192,  and  XVI.  ill.     An  account  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  twin  comets  may  be  found  in  XVI.  in. 

In  the  article  on  METEORS,  XVI.  106,  there  is  much 
interesting  information.  Meteorites,  or  "  falling  stars," 
are  noticed  in  XVI.  112,  with  the  theories  regarding  their 
origin,  etc.  See  also  AEROLITE,  I.  184. 

Passing  now  beyond  the  solar  system,  read  first   that 
portion  of  the   article  on  astronomy  which  refers  particu- 
larly to  the  fixed  stars,  II.  744,  823.     For  the  classifica- 
tion of  these  stars,  with  reference  to  magnitude, 
The  Fixed    turn  to  XVIII.  840.     An  interesting  notice  of 
Stars.       new  and  variable  stars  is  given  in  XXII.  651. 
For  the  measurements  of  the  stars,  see  XVI. 
250;  and  for  their  spectroscopic  analysis,  see  X.  215,  and 

XXII.  651. 

Among  other  subjects  which  are  of  interest  to  students 
of  astronomy,  we  may  mention  the  following : 

The  Zodiac,  XXII.  791. 

The  Zodiacal  Light,  XXIV.  796. 

The  Galaxy  (Milky  Way),  II.  818. 

Corona,  VI.  428. 

Celestial  Photometry,  XVIII.  840. 

If  you  would  acquire  a  knowledge  of  astronomical  in- 
struments, read  the  valuable  articles  on  the  telescope, 

XXIII.  135,  and  sup.  2871  ;  also  that  on  the  transit  cir- 

cle, XIII.  515  ;  the  notice  of  the  micrometer, 

ca"    XVL  242 '   °f  the  sextant>  XXL  ?24 '  of  the 
Instruments  astrolabe,  X.  181.     There  are  two  articles  on 
OBSERVATORIES  which  must  not  be  omitted, 
XVII.  708-717,  and  sup.  2236.     See  the  description  of 


READINGS   IN   ASTRONOMY.  95 

Pond's  astronomical  instruments,  XIX.  452,  and  of  Roe- 
mer's,  XX.  620;  also  of  the  Orrery,  sup.  2261. 

Read  of  the  famous  American  telescope-maker,  Alvan 
Clark,  sup.  816. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  Astronomy,  we  very 
naturally  think  of  almanacs  and  calendars.     The  Britan- 
nica  gives  a  good  deal  of  information  concerning  both  of 
these.     The  articles  on  the  ALMANAC,  I.  590, 
and   American  Almanacs,   sup.    137,  are  espe- 
cially interesting.     So,  too,  is  that  on  the  CAL- 
ENDAR, IV.  664.     The  different  calendars  that 
have  been,  or  are  still  in  use,  are  each  fully  described : 
The  Egyptian  calendar,  VII.  728. 
The  Hebrew  calendar,  IV.  677. 
The  Mohammedan  calendar,  IV.  679. 
The  Burmese  calendar,  IV.  555. 
The  Siamese  calendar,  XXI.  853. 
The  Gregorian  calendar,  IV.  671. 
The  famous  Mexican  calendar-stone,  I.  695. 
The  peculiar  terms  used  in  almanacs  and  calendars  are 
also  explained,  as : 

Chronological  eras  or  epochs,  IV.  681  ;  V.  711. 
Epact,  IV.  672. 

Dominical  letter,  IV.  669,  etc. 
The  various  methods  of  measuring  time  are 
described  in  XXIII.  392. 

Difference  between   mean  time  and  sidereal 
time,  VI.   14. 

Equation  of  time  in  astronomy,  II.  772, 

Timepieces,  VI.  13  ;  XXIV.  394. 

Sun-dials,  VII.   153. 

Clocks,  VI.  13,  and  sup.  836;  Watches,  XXIV.  394. 

Standard  time,  XII.  854. 


96  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  X. 

A  GENERAL  COURSE   OF   READING  IN  BIOLOGY. 

"  Full  nature  swarms  with  life." 

Thomson,  The  Seasons. 

BIOLOGY  in  its  widest  sense  is  the  science  of  life  and 
living  things.  It  therefore  includes  Zoology  and  Botany, 
to  which  separate  chapters  are  devoted  in  this  GUIDE. 
The  following  general  course  of  reading,  although  far  from 
exhaustive,  includes  several  chapters  on  subjects  relating 
to  the  foundation  principles  of  the  science.  It  is  dis- 
tinctively a  course  for  advanced  students. 

BIOLOGY  III.  679. 

Protoplasm,  XIX.  828,  12,  21,  43. 
MORPHOLOGY,  XVI.  837. 

General  Histology,  XII.  4  I    HI.  68 1  J    XVI.  84O. 

Topics.  Differentiation,  XVI.  79. 

Taxonomy,  11.49;  HI.  683. 

Classification,  Botanical,  XVI.  845,  sup.  821-823  ;  zo- 
ological, II.  49. 

DISTRIBUTION,  III.  684 ;  of  animals,  VII.  267  ;  of  plants, 
VII.  286. 

Geological  distribution  of  animals,  VII.  281. 

Continuity  of  life,  III.  684. 

PHYSIOLOGY,  III.  684. 

Animal  physiology,  XIX.  10. 

Human  physiology,  XVII.  667. 

Vegetable  physiology,  XIX.  43. 

Reproduction,  XX.  407. 


READINGS   IN   BIOLOGY.  9? 

Gemmation,  XXIII.  617. 
Fission,  III.  686. 
Agamogenesis,  XIII.  146. 
Hereditary  transmission,  III.  687. 
"Heredity,  I.  87. 

Variation  and  Selection,  XXIV.  76. 
Individuality,  III.  688. 
ETIOLOGY,  III.  688. 

Abiogenesis,  I.  49. 

Biogenesis,  II.  689. 
Evolution.  ° 

Embryology,  sup.  1186. 

Origin  of  Species,  Darwin  on,  XXIV.  77,  81  ; 
Lamarck  on,  XIV.  232. 
Evolution,  VIII.  744. 
Neo-Darwinism,  sup.  2160. 
Phylogeny,  II.  49;  III.  690. 

See,    also    Haeckel,  XX.  422  ;  Darwin,  sup.  989 ;  La- 
marck, XIV.  231  ;    Huxley,  sup.  1639. 

THE  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM.     See  Readings  in  Botany, 
in  this  .GUIDE. 

Limits  and  Classification,  III.  690. 
Vegetable         Thallophyta,  XX.  430  ;  XXIV.  125. 
Kingdom.          Cormophyta,  III.  694. 

THE  ANIMAL    KINGDOM.     See  Readings  in 
Zoology  in  this  GUIDE. 

Acclimatization,  I.  84. 
Animal  Breeds  and  Breeding,  IV.  244. 

Kingdom.         Hybridism,  XII.  422. 

Instinct,  XIII.  157. 
Animal  Mechanics,  XV.  772. 
Longevity  of  Animals,  XIV.  857. 


98  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XL 

READINGS   IN   ZOOLOGY. 

M I  used  to  believe  a  great  deal  more  in  opportunities  and  less  in  ap- 
plication than  I  do  now.  Time  and  health  are  needed,  but  with  these 
there  are  always  opportunities.  Rich  people  have  a  fancy  for  spending 
money  very  uselessly  on  their  culture,  because  it  seems  to  them  more 
valuable  when  it  has  been  costly  ;  but  the  truth  is,  that  by  the  blessing 
of  good  and  cheap  literature,  intellectual  light  has  become  almost  as 
accessible  as  daylight." — Philip  Gilbert  Hamerton. 

THE  amount  and  variety  of  information  which  the  Bri- 
tannica  offers  on  all  subjects  connected  with  the  natural 
sciences   is   truly  wonderful.     The    articles    on 
Three          Zoology,  or  animal    life,  are  very  numerous — 
Courses.       some  of  them  brief,  descriptive  paragraphs,  in- 
structive and  interesting  to  every  reader,  others 
exhaustive  treatises  designed  for  the  study  of  specialists. 
The  vast  range  of  such  subjects  can  perhaps  best  be  illus- 
trated by  reference  to  the  following  schemes  for  courses 
of  reading  in  this  science.     The  first  two  are  of  a  popular 
character,  and  are  believed  to  be  not  too  difficult  for  the 
home  student  or  amateur   zoologist  ;    the  third    is    more 
purely  scientific,  and    will    be  appreciated  only  by  those 
who  have  already  made  considerable  progress  in  the  study, 
and  are  able  to  understand  its  technical  difficulties. 

I.    HISTORICAL  COURSE. 

In  Volume  XXIV.,  beginning  on  page  799  and  extend- 
ing to  page  803,  the  history  of  the  science  of  zoology  is 


READINGS   IN  ZOOLOGY.  99 

treated  in  a   manner   which   appeals  to   the    interest    of 

every   person   who   cares   to    acquaint    himself 

Progress       with   the    progress    of  scientific    ideas.      After 

Science        reading  this,  the  student  will  naturally  turn  to 

the  biographical  sketches  of  the  great  men  who 

have  contributed  most  to  our  knowledge  of  this  subject. 

The  following  articles   will  be  especially  interesting  and 

instructive  : 

Aristotle,  the    most    famous    of   the  ancient 
Biog-          writers  on  this  subject,  II.  510. 
raphies.  Edward  Wotton,  the   first  English  zoologist 

(1492-1555),  XXIV.  803. 

William  Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  (1578-1658),  XI.  502. 

Conrad    Gesner,  the  eminent    Swiss    naturalist    of   the 
XVIth  century,  X.  554. 

John  Ray,  "  the  father  of  modern  zoology  "  (1628-1705), 
XX.  300. 

Carl  Linnaeus,  "  the  Adam  of  zoological  science,"  XIV. 


Comte  de  Buffon,  the  first  great  popularizer  of  natural 
history,  IV.  444. 

Baron  Cuvier,  the  eminent  French  naturalist,  VI.  740. 

Charles  Darwin,  the  great  leader  of  evolutionary  biology, 
sup.  989. 

Ernst  Haeckel,  the  famous  German  disciple  of  the  doc- 
trine of  evolution,  XX.  422. 

Alfred  Russel  Wallace,  author  of  "  The  Geographical 
Distribution  of  Animals,"  sup.  3074. 

Albrecht  von  Haller,  the  Swiss  physiologist,  XI.  396. 

Johannes  Miiller,  the  German  anatomist,  XVII.  17. 

Jean  Baptiste  Lamarck,  originator  of  the  theory  of 
evolution,  XIV.  231. 

Louis  Agassiz,  the  great  Swiss-American  scientist,  I.  274. 


100  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Sir  John  Lubbock,  sup.  1926. 

Thomas  Henry  Huxley,  the  English  naturalist,  sup. 
1639. 

Ernst  von  Baer,  founder  of  the  science  of  embryology, 
XXIV.  807. 

Sir  Richard  Owen,  the  foremost  of  the  disciples  of 
Cuvier,  sup.  2270. 

John  Vaughan  Thompson,  the  great  authority  on  ma- 
rine invertebrata,  XXIV.  808. 

Theodore  Schwann,  inventor  of  the  cell  theory,  XXI,  460. 

John  James  Audubon,  the  greatest  of  ornithologists, 
III.  70. 

Alexander  Wilson,  the  Scottish-American  ornithologist, 
XXIV.  590. 

Spencer  F.  Baird,  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu 
tion,  sup.  321. 

James  Cossar  Ewart,  founder  of  marine  laboratories, 
sup.  1226. 

G.  Brown  Goode,  director  of  the  National  Museum, 
sup.  1423. 

Joseph  Leidy,  American  biologist,  sup.  1860. 

Lewis  Le  Conte,  American  naturalist,  sup.  1852. 

II.    POPULAR   READINGS   ABOUT  ANIMALS. 

As  an  introduction  to  these  readings  it  will  be  interest- 
ing to   notice  the  historical  paragraphs  in  the 

article    on    ZOOLOGY,  XXIV.    790-803.     Read 
Mammalia.  .'  ' 

also  the  first  section  of  the  article  on  MAMMALIA, 

XV.  347,  and  the  last  section  of  the  'same  arti- 
cle,  XV.  444. 

Many  things  in  the  article  on  Anthropology,  II.  107- 
123,  are  both  curious  and  instructive ;  but  for  the  present 
the  reader's  attention  is  directed  only  to  the  section  on  the 


READINGS   IN   ZOOLOGY.  IOI 

Origin  of  Man,  page  1 10,  and  that  on  the  Races  of  Man- 
kind, page  in. 

The  article  on  the  APE,  II.  148-169,  by  Professor  St. 
George  Mivart,  is  a  complete  popular  and  scientific  de- 
scription of  the  various  families  and  groups  of  monkeys. 
The  general  reader  will  be  interested  in  the  first  section, 
page  148-155,  and  also  in  the  concluding  sections  relating 
to  the  geopraphical  distribution,  etc.,  of  apes. 

The  ELEPHANT  is  the  subject  of  an  important  article, 
VIII.  122.  His  prehistoric  relatives  or  progenitors  are 
also  appropriately  described  :  the  Mammoth,  XV.  447  ; 
the  Mastodon,  XV.  622  ;  and  the  Megatherium,  XV.  829. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  all  domestic  animals  is 
the  CAMEL.  See  the  general  article,  IV.  735,  and  also  the 
section  on  the  camel  in  Arabia,  II.  242. 

Interesting  articles — historical  and  descriptive,  and  illus- 
trated— are  those  on  the  Dog,  VII.  324 ;  and  the  Cat,  V.  202. 

Carnivorous  animals  are  represented  by  the  Tiger, 
-XXIII.  385  ;  the  Lion,  XIV.  679 ;  and  the  Hyena,  XII.  420. 

Some  curious  animals  are:  the  Beaver,  III.  475;  the 
Chameleon,  V.  381;  the  Chamois,  V.  384;  the  Sloth, 
XXII.  161  ;  the  Ichneumon,  XII.  629. 

Of  the  long  and  very  comprehensive  article  on  BIRDS, 
III.  699,  the  general  reader  will  select  the  following  chap- 
ters as  the  most  interesting:  Fossil  birds,  III. 
728  ;  migration  of  birds,  III.  765  ;  birds'  eggs, 
III.  772.  The  different  classes  of  birds  are 
variously  represented  and  described  in  a  large 
number  of  separate  articles.  For  the  present  it  is  un- 
necessary to  call  attention  to  any  of  these  articles  further 
than  to  say  that  no  popular  course  of  reading  should  omit 
the  Ostrich,  XVIII.  62  ;  the  Rhea,  XX.  505;  the  Eagle, 
VII.  589:  the  Raven,  XX.  295,  the  Hummingbird,  XII. 
357;  and  the  Albatross,  I.  449.  The  Dodo,  that  won- 


102  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

derful   bird  which  has  but  lately  become  extinct,   is  the 
subject  of  an  interesting  sketch,  VII.  321. 

A  general  study  of  fishes,   such  as  is   contemplated  in 
this   course,  should   include    a  glance  at  the   special   ar- 
ticle, XII.  630,  and  also  a  portion  of  the  chapter  on  fish- 
culture,  XIX.    126.     The   article   on  ANGLING, 
II.  32,  will  be  read  and  enjoyed  by  every  fisher- 
man.    Among  the  multitude  of  similar  articles, 
the  following  on  food  fishes  should  not  be  omit- 
ted:  Salmon,  sup.  2612  ;  Mackerel,  XV.  159;  Herring,  XL 
764;  Cod,  VI.  103  ;  Sardine,  XXI.  307.     Fossil  fishes  are 
noticed  in  I.  275,  and  poisonous  fishes  in  XV.  782.  See,  also, 
Seth  Green,  the  famous  fish  culturist,  sup.  1461. 
David   Starr  Jordan,  the  American  ichthyologist,  sup. 

I755- 
Aquarial  building,  sup.  3201. 

As  to  reptiles,  read  the  following  :  Distribu- 
tion of  reptiles  in  time,  XX.  465  ;  Rattlesnake, 
XX.  293  ;  Cobra,  VI.  905  ;  Asp,  II.  714  ;  Croco- 
dile, VI.  592 ;  Lizard,  XIV.  732. 

Concerning  CRUSTACEA,  there  is  a  valuable  article  in 
VI.  632  ;  but  our  popular  course  will  include  only  the 
chapters  relating  to  the  crab,  VI.  538,  and  the  lobster, 
VI.  657. 

Ocean  life  is  noticed  in  an  interesting  way  in  VII.  276- 

281.     The  articles  on  the  Whale,   XXIV.   523; 

Ocean          the  Walrus,  XXIV.  337  ;  the  Dolphin,  VII.  346  ; 

Life.  the  Seal,  XXL  580,  and  the  Oyster,  sup.  2273- 

2274,  are  particularly  interesting. 

The  above  lists  include  only  a  very  small  portion 
of  the  articles  on  animals.  These  are  sufficient,  however, 
to  indicate  the  great  variety  of  interesting  and  practical 
information  on  zoological  subjects  contained  in  the  pages 
of  the  Britannica. 


READINGS   IN   ZOOLOGY.  IO3 

This  course  of  reading  might  be  extended  indefinitely 
until  it  should  embrace  many  hundreds  of  subjects,  and 
require  half  a  lifetime  for  its  completion.  The  purpose  of 
the  GUIDE,  however,  has  been  not  to  present  an  exhaus- 
tive course,  but  only  to  indicate  that  which  may  be  com- 
pleted easily  by  the  amateur  student  within  a  compara- 
tively brief  period  of  time.  A  still  briefer  and  much 
easier  course  is  indicated  in  Chapter  IV.  of  this  GUIDE. 

III.    SUPPLEMENTARY   COURSE   FOR   SPECIAL    STUDENTS. 

The  principal  articles  on  zoological  subjects,  written  by 
specialists  and  embodying  all  the  lastest  discoveries,  are 
particularly  valuable  to  advanced  students.  They  are  re- 
markable alike  for  their  comprehensiveness  and  their  ac- 
curacy. Taken  together,  they  would  form  a  complete 
library  of  zoology  in  themselves. 

After  reading  the  history  of  the  science  as  it  is  related 

in  XXIV.  799-803,  together  with  the  biographical  sketches 

indicated  in  Course  I.  above,  the  student  will  be 

Classifica-    prepared   to   make   some  study  of  the  various 

tion.         forms  of  classification  that  have  been  proposed 

by  great   naturalists.     Most    of   these  may  be 

found  in  the  special  article  on  Zoology,  already  alluded  to  : 

Aristotle's,  XXIV.  804. 

The  Linnaean,  XXIV.  805. 

Lamarck's,  XXIV.  806. 

Cuvier's,  XXIV.  807. 

Owen's,  XXIV.  808. 

Huxley's,  XXIV.  809. 

A  valuable  scientific  article  on  classification,  written  by 
Mr.  Huxley  himself,  may  be  found  in  II.  49.  Keeping 
Mr.  Huxley's  classification  in  mind,  the  student  who  cares 
to  go  so  deeply  into  the  subject  may  obtain  a  g 


104  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

complete  view  of  the  science  of  zoology  by  studying  the 
following  articles  in  the  order  here  given  : 

I.  Protozoa,  XIX.   830 — a  valuable  article,  very  finely 
illustrated. 

II.  Infusoria,  XXII.  106. 

III.  Ccelenterata,  VI.  107 — a  short  article,  purely  scien- 
tific.    Under  this  sub-kingdom,  see   Hydrozoa,  XII.  547, 
and  Actinozoa,  I.  129. 

IV.  Annuloida — see  Echinodermata,  VII.  629. 

V.  Annulosa. — Under  this  sub-kingdom  there  may  be 
many  references.     We  give  only  a  few  : 

Crustacea,  VI.  632. 

Arachnida,  II.  271. 

Myriapoda,  XVII.  115,  and  V.  340. 

Insecta,  XIII.  141  (see  Index,  224). 

Chaetognatha  (marine  worms),  XXI.  148,  and   II.  52. 

Annelida,  II.  65. 

VI.  Molluscoida,    IV.    188. — Under    this    sub-kingdom, 
see : 

Polyzoa,  XIX.  429. 
Brachiopoda,  IV.  188. 
Tunicata,  XXIII.  609;  II.  53. 

VII.  Mollusca,XVI.6$2\  II.  54.— Under  this  sub-king- 
dom, refer  to  the  following  subjects: 

Lamellibranchiata,  XVI.  684. 
Gastropoda,  XVI.  641. 
Pteropoda,  XVI.  665. 
Cephalopoda,  VI.  735. 

VIII.  Vertebrata,  XXIV.    178.— Under  this   sub-king- 
dom there  might  be  hundreds  of  references  given.     The 
following  articles  and  paragraphs  will  be  found  especially 
valuable : 

CLASS  I.  PISCES.  See  Ichthyology,  XI  1.630;  distribution 
of  marine   fishes,  VII.  280,  XII.  677  ;  freshwater  fishes, 


READINGS   IN   ZOOLOGY.  IO5 

XII.  669;  fishes  of  America,  1.684;  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  fishes,  XII.  668  ;  fishes  of  prehis- 
toric times,  XII.  666;  Agassiz's  researches  on 

Fishes.  TT  .  TT 

fossil  fish,  I.  275  ;  angling,  II.  32;  aquariums,  II. 

217.  Several  special  articles  may  be  of  interest 
to  the  general  reader,  such  as : 

Sea  fisheries,  IX.  243. 

Mackerel,  XV.  160. 

Cod,  VI.  103. 

Sturgeon,  XXII.  611. 

Fish-culture,  XII.  664;  XIX.  126;  sup.  1280. 

Angling,  II.  32. 

Izaak  Walton,  XXIV.  342. 

David  Starr  Jordan,  sup.  1755. 

CLASS  2.  AMPHIBIA,  I.  750. 

CLASS  3.  REPTILIA,  XX.  432  ;  snakes,  XXII.  189;  croco- 
diles, VI.  592  ;  alligators,  I.  585. 

CLASS  4.  AVES.     See   Birds,  111.699;  distribution  of, 

III.  736,  VII.  269;  birds  of  America,  I.  684.     Turn  to  the 

special  article,  ORNITHOLOGY,  XVIII.  2.     The  history  of 

this  science,  as  narrated  in  the  first  pages  of  this  article, 

is  especially  interesting.     The  list  of  valuable 

works  on  birds,  XVIII.  11—19,  *s  very  complete 

and  valuable.     The  titles  of  hundreds  of  articles, 

referring  to  different  birds  might,  be  given,  but 

we  quote  only  a  few — for  example,  in  volume  VI.  are  such 

articles  as  the  following:  cockatoo,  p.  98  ;  condor,  p.  253  ; 

coot,  p.  341  ;  cormorant,  p.  407;  crane,  p.  546;  crow,   p. 

617;  cuckoo,  p.  685  ;   curassow,   p.  709;  curlew,  p.  711— 

but  the  student  needs  no  guide  to  fine}  such  articles  as 

these. 

CLASS  5.  MAMMALIA,  XV.  347 — a  very  comprehensive 
and  scientific  article,  fully  illustrated. 

Classification  of  Mammalia,  XV.  370. 


IC>6  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

History  of  Mammalia  in  former  times,  XV.  374.     See 
also  Palaeontology,  X.  319. 

Subclass  Echidna,  VII.  628. 
Mammalia.  . 

Subclass   Metatkerta,    XV.   378  ;    marsupials, 

XIII.  838;  kangaroo,  III.  ill. 

Subclass  Eutheria.  Order  Edentata.  VII.  652  ;  sloth, 
XXII.  161  ;  armadillo,  II.  543;  aard-vark,  I.  3;  anteater, 
XV.  385,  etc. 

Order  Sirenia,  XV.  389  ;  the  manatee,  XV.  456,  etc. 

Order  Cetacea,  V.  357;  whale,  XXIV.  523;  porpoise, 
XIX.  521  ;  dolphin,  VII.  346,  etc. 

Order  Insectivora,  XV.  400. 

Order  Chiroptera,  XV.  405  ;   bats,  III.  431. 

Order  Rodentia,  XV.  415  ;  squirrels,  XXII.  437;  rab- 
bits, XX.  192  ;  hares,  XL  479,  etc. 

Order  Ungulata,  XV.  421;  elephant,  VIII.  122;  rhi- 
noceros, XX.  521;  horse,  XII.  172;  zebra,  XXIV.  772; 
deer,  VII.  23,  etc. 

Order  Carnivora,  XV.  432  ;  cat,  V.  202  ;  dog,  VII.  324; 
bear,  III.  461  ;  lion,  XIV.  679;  tiger,  XXIII.  385,  etc. 

Order  Primates,  II.  108  ;  lemur,  XIV.  440;  monkey, 
II.  148;  man,  XV.  4/1/1,  and  II.  107,  etc. 


MISCELLANEOUS    READINGS. 

The  student  who  has  followed  this   course  of  reading 
to  the  present  point   will   now  be  prepared  to 
Special        notice  the  following  important  special  articles  : 
•Articles.  Anthropology,  II.  107. 

Animism,  II.  55. 
'Biology,  III.  679. 
Evolution,  VIII.  744. 
Neo-Darwinism,  sup.  2160. 
Variation  and  selection,  XXIV.  76. 
Acclimatization,  I.  84. 


READINGS   IN   ZOOLOGY.  IO/ 

Reproduction,  XX.  407. 

Parthenogenesis,  sup.  2302. 

Embryology,  VIII.  163.  A  valuable  supplementary 
article,  giving  an  account  of  all  the  latest  advancements 
in  this  department  of  science,  may  be  found  in  sup.  1186- 
1195. 

Breeds  and  Breeding,  IV.  244. 

Hybridism,  XII.  422. 

Distribution  of  Animals,  VII.  267. 

Longevity  of  Animals,  XIV.  857. 

Animal  Physiology,  XIX.  10. 

Animal  Heat,  sup.  189. 

Animal  Magnetism,  XV.  277. 

Animal  Mechanics,  XV.  772. 

Sense-Organs,  sup.  2682. 

Segmentation  of  the  Vertebrate  Head  and  Brain,  sup. 
2664. 

Instinct,  XIII.  157. 

Histology,  XII.  4. 

See  General  Course  of  Reading  in  Biology,  for  a  more 
logical  arrangement  of  these  subjects. 


108  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

READINGS   IN   BOTANY. 

"  In  my  garden  I  spend  my  days  ;  in  my  library  I  spend  my  nights. 
My  interests  are  divided  between  my  geraniums  and  my  books." — Alex- 
ander Smith. 

THE  reader  who  wishes  to  acquire  a  general  knowledge 

of  the  subject  of  botany  may  begin  by  reading  the  chapter 

on   the  history  of   Botanical   Science,  IV.  79. 

Great  After  this,  read  the  biographies  of  the  famous 
Botanists,  men  who  have  contributed  most  to  the  advance- 
merit  of  this  science.  Among  these  the  follow- 
ing are  named  as  among  the  most  important : 

The  elder  Pliny,  the  first  who  made  any  extensive  cata- 
logue of  plants,  XIX.  224. 

Andreas  Caesalpinus,  the  great  Florentine  botanist  of 
the  i6th  century,  IV.  633. 

John  Ray,  the  originator  of  the  "  natural  system  "  of 
classification,  XX.  300. 

Tournafort,  the  foremost  French  botanist  of  the  i/th 
century,  XXII.  490. 

Carl   Linnaeus,  the  real  founder  of  the  science,   XIV. 

67i. 

Jussieu,  a  famous  French  family  of  botanists,  XIII.  788. 

Robert  Brown,  the  first  British  botanist  to  adopt  and 
support  the  "  natural  system,"  IV.  385. 

Asa  Gray,  the  well-known  American  botanist,  sup.  1447. 

John  M.  Coulter,  author  of  many  of  the  articles  on 
botanical  subjects  in  the  supplements  to  the  Britannica, 
sup.  927. 


READINGS   IN   BOTANY.  109 

After  having  read  these  biographical  sketches,  turn 
again  to  the  special  article  on  BOTANY,  IV.  79-163,  and 
notice  the  comprehensive  manner  in  which  the  subject 
is  there  treated.  This  article  comprises  much  more  mat- 
ter than  is  contained  in  the  ordinary  school  text-books, 
and,  as  you  will  see,  is  profusely  and  beautifully  illus- 
trated with  numerous  full-page  plates. 

If  it  is  your  wish  to  make  a  thorough  study  of  the 
anatomical  structure  of  plants,  their  arrangement  and 
classification,  their  distribution  over  the  globe,  and  the 
uses  to  which  they  are  subservient,  you  will  find  this  ar- 
ticle to  be  full  of  just  the  kind  of  information 

Article  ,.__ 

that  you  want.  We  will  suppose,  however,  that 
Botany.  you  prefer,  instead  of  studying  every  portion  of 
this  article,  to  use  it  for  purposes  of  reference, 
and  in  order  to  supplement  the  information  which  you  ob^ 
tain  from  other  sources.  If  this  be  the  case,  consult  the 
".Index  of  Principal  Subjects,"  IV.  162.  But  even  if  you  are 
making  only  a  hasty  and  superficial  survey  of  this  delight- 
ful science,  you  will  find  several  chapters  in  this  article 
worthy  of  your  attention.  Here  are  a  few  which  you 
cannot  afford  to  pass  unnoticed : 

Different  parts  of  flowers,  p.  126;  essential  organs  of 
flowers,  p.  134;  respiration  of  plants,  p.  119;  pollen,  p. 
138;  fertilization,  p.  147;  mosses,  p.  107;  lichens,  p.  107; 
leaves,  pp.  108-119;  fruit,  pp.  148-153. 

One  of  the  most  important  articles  to  aid  in  the  syste- 
matic study  of  this  science  is  that  on  CLASSIFICATION,  by 
Prof.  John  M.  Coulter,  sup.  821-823. 

The  article  on  Ecology,  sup.  1111-1113,  a  new  depart- 
ment of  plant  physiology,  is  indispensable  to  all  advanced 
students. 

The  article  on  Morphology  of  Plants,  sup.  2105,  is 
equally  lucid,  scientific,  and  comprehensive. 


TIO  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Other  articles  relating  to  botanical  topics  are  numerous. 
Any  lover  of  flowers  who  does  not  care  to  pursue  a  course 
of  reading,  may  while  away  many  pleasant  hours  in  perus- 
ing chapters  like  the  following  : 

Distribution  of  plants,  VII.  286. 

Propagation  of  plants,  XII.  21 1,  234. 

Reproduction  of  plants,  XX.  423  ;  sup.  2534. 

Ancestry  of  plants,  sup.  176. 

Fertilization  by  insects,  XIII.  142. 

Linnaeus's  classih'cation  of  plants,  XIV.  672. 

Morphology,  XVI.  841. 

Alternation  of  generation,  sup.  143. 

Assimilation  in  plants,  sup.  269. 

Physiology  of  plants,  XIX.  43. 

Insectivorous  plants,  XIII.  134. 

Parasitic  plants,  XVIII.  264. 

The  article  on  the  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM,  XXIV. 
125-131,  contains  a  complete  classification  of  plants. 

Read  also  : 

Botanic  Gardens,  sup.  529. 

Algae,  I.  507,  sup.  123. 

Fungus,  IX.  827. 

Lichens,  XIV.  552. 

Hepaticae,  XIV.  718. 

Muscinae,  XVII.  65. 

In  pursuing  the  study  of  botany  in  a  practical  way,  it 
is  of  course  necessary  that  you  should  acquire  a  knowl- 
edge of  plants  at  first  hand,  through  personal 

The  observation.  You  must,  therefore,  make  a  col- 
Herbarium,  lection  of  plants  and  arrange  an  herbarium  for 
your  own  use  and  study.  Full  directions  for 
doing  this  may  be  found  in  XL  717. 

And  now,  for  further  reference  to  plants,  their  culture, 


READINGS   IN   BOTANY.  Ill 

uses,  etc.,  see  the  chapters  in  this  volume  entitled,  The 
Gardener,  The  Fruit  Grower,  and  The  Woods- 
Further  man.  In  the  first  will  be  found  a  series  of  read- 
Studies,  ings  on  the  propagation  and  care  of  flowers  and 
vegetables,  and  in  the  others  some  interesting 
and  curious  matter  pertaining  to  trees,  their  modes  of 
growth,  their  history,  and  their  uses  in  the  world's  econ- 
omy. It  is  well  to  remember  that  all  the  most  important 
trees  and  plants  in  existence  are  the  subjects  of  special 
articles  in  the  Britannica.  These  may  readily  be  found 
by  consulting  the  Index  volume. 


112  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

READINGS    IN    GEOGRAPHY. 

' '  What  a  world  is  this  ! " 

— As  You  Like  It. 

I. — HISTORY   OF   GEOGRAPHY. 

No  TEACHER  of  geography  can  afford  to  be  without  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  In  its  pages  are  found  a  wealth 
and  variety  of  matter  pertaining  to  this  science  which  it  is 
impossible  to  find  in  any  similiar  work.  By  reference  to 
its  numerous  geographical  articles  all  difficult  questions 
may  be  easily  solved,  and  a  store  of  information  may  be 
acquired  which  will  be  of  infinite  value  at  times  when  it  is 
needed  most. 

The  teaching  of  geography  began  in  very 
History  of  ancient  times.  The  people  of  antiquity  knew 
Geography,  but  very  little  about  the  earth,  it  is  true  ;  but 
they  were  anxious  to  perpetuate  and  extend 
that  knowledge.  And  so  among  the  Greeks,  we  find  that 
it  was  customary  to  lay  particular  stress  upon  the  teach- 
ing of  the  second  book  of  the  Iliad,  for  that  book  contains, 
in  connection  with  the  "  catalogue  of  ships,"  a  brief  notice 
of  the  geography  of  the  countries  known  at  the  time  of 
the  Trojan  war.  (See  Homer,  XII.  108  ;  Iliad,  XL  137; 
Troy,  XX.  637.) 

The  first  person  who  attempted  to  reduce  the  science  to 
a  system  was  Eratosthenes  (VIII.  519),  and  when  we  con- 
sider how  limited  was  his  knowledge  of  the  subject  we  are 
surprised  that  he  succeeded  so  well.  He  was  followed  by 


READINGS   IN   GEOGRAPHY.  113 

Hipparchus  (XV.  516),  who  proposed  a  method  for  deter- 
mining the  relative  position  of  places  upon  the  earth. 
Later  came  Ptolemy,  the  greatest  of  all  the  ancient  ge- 
ographers (XX.  87).  His  maps  are  the  most  ancient  that 
have  come  down  to  us.  (For  a  copy  of  his  map  of  the 
world,  see  XV.  516.)  Strabo,  who  was  a  little  earlier,  was 
perhaps  even  more  scientific  in  his  methods  and  conclu- 
sions than  Ptolemy  (XXII.  580). 

During  the   Middle  Ages,  geography  was  taught  in  the 

monastic  schools.    (See  trivium  and  quadrivium, 

The  Middle  XX.  515.)     In  the  course  of  study  it  was  placed 

Ages.  under  the  head  of  geometry ;  but  the  "  geometry" 
of  these  schools  consisted  chiefly  of  an  abridg- 
ment of  Ptolemy's  or  Pliny's  geography  (X.  177;  XIX. 
224),  to  which  the  definitions  of  a  few  geometric  forms 
had  been  added.  For  a  thousand  years  there  was  abso- 
lutely no  advancement  made  in  either  the  knowledge  of 
geography  or  the  methods  of  teaching  it. 

The  first  modern  impetus  to  discovery  was  given  by 
the  invention  of  the  manner's  compass  (VI.  225),  and  this 
of  course  was  followed  by  a  corresponding  extension  of 
geographical  knowledge.  Then  came  the  invention  of 
the  astrolabe  (XVII.  251).  Then  Prince  Henry  the  Navi- 
gator began  his  career  of  exploration  (XI.  672) ;  Colum- 
bus gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  study  of  geog- 

Birth  o       raphy  by  discovering  a  new  continent  (VI.  171). 

Geography    Other   bold   adventurers   sailed    the   seas   and 

added  their  contributions  to   mankind's  stock 

of  knowledge  concerning  the  world  and  its  inhabitants. 

(See  Hakluyt,  XL  378,  and  Purchas,  XX.  114.) 

But  the  history  ot  the  progress  of  geographical  study 
is  given  In  full,  and  with  many  interesting  details,  in  the 
Britannica.  See  Geography,  X.  175. 

In  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  the'history  of  this  subject, 

8 


114  GUIDE   TO   THE    BRITANNICA. 

the  following  articles  will  be  found   replete  with  informa- 
tion : 

Globe,  X.  680. 

Maps,   XV.  515;    earliest  forms  of  maps,   XX.  91,  94; 
classes  of  maps,  X.  191  ;  Mercator's  map,  XVII.  253. 

Navigation,  XVII.  251. 
Promoters  of  Marco  Polo,  XIX.  408. 
Geographical  . 

Knowledge.      Varemus,  XXIV.  69. 

Rennell,  XX.  399. 
Ritter,  XX.  570. 
Petermann,  sup.  2356. 

See  also  Polar  exploration  since  1880,  sup.  2408. 
Henry  M.  Stanley,  sup.  2777. 

II.    A  VIEW  OF  THE  WORLD. 

On  the   pronunciation    of  geographic  names,   see    sup. 
1380. 

Every  reader  of  the  Britannica  will  of  course    under- 
stand that  all  articles  descriptive  of  the  conti- 
The  World    nents>  ancj  indeed  of  every  place  of  importance 
Whole       m  ^ie  WOI"ld,  are  to   be  found  in  their  appro- 
priate  places  in  the  different  volumes  of  this 
work.     Hence  it  is  not  necessary  to  encumber  the  pages 
of  the  GUIDE  with  mere  lists  of  such  articles.     The  titles 
of  some  of  these  articles  may  be  grouped  together,  how 
ever,  according  to  topics,  in  such  a  way  as  to   indicate  a 
number  of  brief  courses  of   reading  on  geographical  sub- 
jects.    Begin,   for  example   with   the  world   as  a  whole. 
Read  the  article  on  Physical  Geography,  X.   210;    then 
take  up  the  following  in  their  order  : 

The  Globe,  X.  680-685  ;  the  Relief  Globe,   sup.    1410. 

Maps,  XV.  5i5-523. 

The  Ocean,  X.  211,  221,  282. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  III.  15. 


READINGS   IN   GEOGRAPHY.  1  15 

Pacific  Ocean,  XVIII.  114. 
Indian  Ocean,  XII.  820. 
Ocean  Currents,  III.  16,  X.  283. 
Currents  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  XVIII.  117. 
Currents  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  XII.  821. 
The   Continents:    Europe,   VIII.   680;  Asia,    II.  683; 
Africa,  I.  245  ;  Australia,  III.  103  ;  America,  I. 


Land 

Seas,  XXI.  578  (see  Index  volume,  page  396)  ; 

Mediterranean  Sea,   XV.  819;  Red   Sea,  XX. 
316;  Aral  Sea,  II.  306  ;  Black  Sea,  III.  795  ;  Caspian,  V. 
176;  Baltic,  III.  293;  North,   XVII.   563;  Ca- 
ribbean, V.  103,  etc. 

Lakes  (special  article),  XIV.  216. 
Rivers,  XX.  571  ;  The  Amazon,  I.  654,  674; 
Mississippi,  XVI.  518;  Nile,  XVII.  504,  VII.  705  ;  Niger, 
XVII.  496;  Congo,  XXIV.  763  ;  Indus,  XII.  847;  Eu- 
phrates, VIII.  668;  Ganges,  X.  68;  Rhine,  XX.  518; 
Danube,  VI.  819. 

Cataracts  and  Waterfalls,  sup.  722. 
Mountains,  XVII.    4;    Alps,    I.    619;    Atlas,   III.    27; 
Apennines,  II.  169  ;  Appalachian,  II.  200  ;   Andes,  II.  15  ; 
Rocky,  XXIII.  796;   Himalaya,  XI.   821;   Ural,  XXIV. 
3  ;  Pyrenees,  XX.  124. 

III.    MAPS    IN  THE    BRITANNICA. 

To  the  student  of  geography,  one  of  the  most  instruct- 
ive articles  in  the  Britannica  is  that  on  the  making  of  maps, 
XV.  515.  The  account  therein  given  of  the  first  essays 
in  map-making  is  particularly  interesting.  This  is  followed 
by  chapters  on  the  development  of  map-making  among 
the  Greeks,  XV.  $16]  on  map-making  among  the  Romans, 
page  517;  on  map-making  in  the  middle  ages,  page  517; 
on  nautical  maps,  page  518  ;  on  the  maps  of  Ptolemy  and 


Il6  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

his  successors,  page  520;   on  the  period  of  triangulations 
and  geodetic  surveys,  page  522.     In  connection  with  this 
article,  the  curious  reader  will  find  a  double-page  colored 
illustration  comparing   Ptolemy's  map  of  the  world  with 
the  actual  positions  and  distances,  thus  showing  that,  how- 
ever inaccurate  it  may  have  been  in  details,  it  was  never- 
theless constructed  according  to  strictly  scien- 
tific methods,  and  in  that  respect  was  perfectly 
Historical.  * 

correct.     An  outline  of  Mercator  s  map  of  the 

world,  drawn  in  1569,  is  another  interesting  fea- 
ture of  this  article,  XV.  521.  The  Borgia  map,  X.  177, 
made  in  the  I5th  century,  just  before  the  discovery  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  is  not  only  a  great  curiosity,  but 
worthy  of  study,  as  illustrating  the  ideas  of  learned  men 
in  the  middle  ages  concerning  the  shape  and  extent  of  the 
earth.  The  Lenox  Globe,  represented  in  IX.  68 1,  and  sup- 
posed to  have  been  constructed  in  1506-07,  illustrates  the 
next  step  in  the  advancement  of  geographical  knowledge. 
The  maps  in  the  Britannica,  if  collected  together  within 
a  single  volume,  would  form  one  of  the  most  complete 
and  convenient  atlases  ever  published.  But  since  these 
maps  are  necessarily  somewhat  widely  scattered  through 
the  twenty-four  volumes  of  the  Encyclopedia,  few  people, 
realize  the  extent  and  importance  of  this  feature.  In  fact, 
there  is  no  country  of  the  globe  that  is  not  accurately  rep- 
resented in  these  pages. 

COLORED   MAPS. 

Africa,  I.  244. 
Alabama,  I.  438. 
Alaska,  I.  442. 
America,  North,  I.  668, 
America,  South,  I.  712. 
Arabia,  II.  240. 


READINGS   IN   GEOGRAPHY.  1I/ 

Argentina,  II.  489. 

Arizona,  II.  538. 

Arkansas,  II.  539. 

Armenia  XV.  92. 

Asia,  II.  682. 

Asia  Minor,  XV.  92. 

Australia,  III.  104. 

Austria-Hungary,  III.  120. 

Bengal  and  Assam,  III.  564. 

Boston  and  Vicinity,  XV.  610  ;  XX.  524. 

Brazil,  IV.  224. 

California  and  N'evada,  IV.  696. 

Canada,  IV.  768. 

Cape  Colony,  V.  40. 

Central  America,  X.  240. 

Chicago  and  Vicinity,  XII.  704. 

China,  V.  626. 

The  Coal  Fields  of  Great  Britain,  VI.  48. 

Colorado — county  map,  VI.  160. 

Connecticut — county  map,  VI.  288. 

North  Dakota — county  map,  VI.  772. 

South  Dakota — county  map,  VI.  773. 

Denmark,  VII.  80. 

Derby,  England,  VII.  106. 

Devon,  England,  VII.  136. 

Dorset,  England,  VII.  372. 

Durham,  England,  VII.  560. 

Egypt,  VII.  704. 

England  and  Wales — county  map,  VIII.  216. 

Britain  in  597,  VIII.  272. 

English  Empire  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries, 
VIII.  273. 

England  and  France,  temu  Henry  the  second,  VIII. 
304- 


Il8  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

England  and  France  in  1360,  VIII.  320. 

Essex,  England,  VIII.  552. 

Modern  Europe,  VIII.  680. 

Europe  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  VIII.  714. 

Europe  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  VIII.  715. 

Europe  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  VIII.  716. 

Florida,  IX.  338. 

France,  IX.  504. 

Georgia — county  map,  X.  432. 

The  German  Empire,  X.  448. 

Gloucester,  England,  X.  688. 

Ancient  Greece,  XL  80. 

Modern  Greece,  XL  81. 

Guatemala,  Honduras,  etc.,  XL  240. 

Hampshire,  England,  XL  432. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  XL  528. 

Section  of  the  Leadville  Mining  District,  XVI.  472. 

Hayti,  XL  529. 

Hereford,  England,  XL  728. 

Hertford,   England,  XL  772. 

The  Himalaya  Mountain  Region,  XL  824. 

Holland,  XII.  64. 

Hungary — showing  political  divisions,  XII.  360. 

Huntingdon  and  Cambridge,  England,  XII.  396. 

Iceland,  XII.     616. 

Idaho — county  map,  XII.  696. 

Illinois — county  map,  XII.   704. 

India — showing  political  divisions,  XII.  730. 

Indiana — county  map,  XII.  812. 

Iowa — county  map,  XIII.  208. 

Ireland,  XIII.  216. 

Italy,  XIII.  440. 

Jamaica,  XIII.  548. 

Japan,  XIII.  568. 


READINGS   IN   GEOGRAPHY.  119 

Java,  XIII.  548. 

Ground  Plan  of  Modern  Jerusalem,  XIII.  640. 
Kansas — county  map,  XIII.  842. 
Kent,  England,  XIV.  36. 

Kentucky  and  Tennessee — county  map,  XIV.  40. 
Lanark,  Scotland,  XIV.  250. 
Lancashire,  England,  XIV.  252. 
Leicester  and  Rutland,  England,  XIV.  424. 
Lincoln,  England,  XIV.  656. 
London,  XIV.  818. 
Central  London,  XIV.  819. 
Louisiana — parish  map,  XV.  20. 
Lycaonia,  Lycia,  Lydia,  XV.  92. 
Macedonia,  XV.  136. 
Madagascar,  XV.  168. 
Madeira,  XV.  136. 
Maine — county  map,  XV.  296. 
The  Malay  Peninsula,  XV.  320. 
Maltese  Islands,  XV.  136. 
Ptolemy's  Map  of  the  World,  XV.  516. 
Maryland  and  Delaware — county  map,  XV.  602. 
Massachusetts   and  Rhode    Island — county   map,  XV. 
610. 

Mesopotamia,  XVI.  544. 
Mexico,  XVI.  216. 
Michigan — county  map,  XVI.  240. 
Middlesex,  England,  XVI.  280. 
Minnesota — county  map,  XVI.  474. 
Mississippi — county  map,  XVI.  520. 
Missouri — county  map,  XVI.  524. 
The  Mohammedan  Empire,  XVI.  544. 
Monmouth,  England,  XVI.  752. 
Montana — county  map,  XVI.  772. 
Morocco,  XVI.  832. 


120  GUIDE   TO   THE    BRITANNICA. 

Nebraska — county  map,  XVII.  306. 

Nevada — county  map,  XVII.  368. 

New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  XVII.  372. 

New  Guinea  and  New  Caledonia,  XVII.  376. 

New  Hampshire    and    Vermont — county   map,  XVII. 

392. 

New  Jersey — county  map,  XVII.  396. 

New  Mexico — county  map,  XVII.  400. 

New  South  Wales — county  map,  XVII.  408. 

New  York — county  map,  XVII.  450. 

New  York  City  and  Vicinity,  XVII.  456. 

New  York  City,  on  larger  scale,  XVII.  458,  459. 

New  Zealand,  XVII.  466. 

The  Region  of  the  Nile,  XVII.  504. 

Norfolk,  England,  XVII.  536. 

Northampton  and  Bedford,  England,  XVII.  556. 

North  Carolina — county  map,  XVII.  560. 

Northumberland,  England,  XVII.  568. 

Norway  and  Sweden,  XVII.  576. 

Nottingham,  England,  XVII.  596. 

Ohio — county  map,  XVII.  736. 

Ontario — county  map,  XVII.  774. 

Oregon — county  map,  XVII.  824. 

Oxfordshire,  Buckingham,  etc.,  England,  XVIII.  96. 

Pacific  Ocean,  showing  depths  and  temperature,  XVIII. 
114. 

Pacific  Ocean,  showing  currents  and  routes  of  travel, 
XVIII.  115. 

Palestine,  XVIII.  176. 

Paris  and  its  Environs,  XVIII.  274. 

Pennsylvania — county  map,  XVIII.  498. 

Persia— Ancient  Iran,  XVIII.  560. 

Modern  Persia,  XVIII.  616. 

Peru — showing  political  divisions,  XVIII.  672. 


READINGS   IN   GEOGRAPHY. 


121 


Philadelphia  (two  sheets),  XVIII.  736,  737. 

Philippine  Islands,  XVIII.  752. 

The  Kingdom  of  Poland,  XIX.  288. 

The  Polar  Regions,  XIX.  320. 

Polynesia,  XIX.  424. 

Portugal,  XIX.  536. 

Prussia  in  1786,  XX.  8. 

Prussia  in  1866,  XX.  9. 

Quebec   (Province  of),  XX.  164. 

Queensland,  XX.  172. 

Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  XX.  524. 

Roman  Empire,  third  century,  XX.  776. 

Ancient  Rome,  XX.  808. 

Modern  Rome,  XX.  832. 

Roumania  and  Servia,  XXI.  18. 

Russia  in  Europe,  XXI.  68. 

Russia  from  1462  to  1689,  XXI.  88. 

Accessions  to  Russia,  1689  to  1825,  XXI.  89. 

The  Basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  XXI.  177. 

Saxony,  XXI.  352. 

Scotland  in  the  i6th  Century,  XXI.  498. 

Scotland  at  the  present  day,  XXI.  520. 

Shropshire,  England,  XXI.  848. 

Siam,  XXI.  852. 

Siberia,  XXII.  2. 

Sicily,  XXII.  29. 

Somerset,  England,  XXII.  256. 

South  Australia,  XXII.  282. 

South  Carolina,  XXII.  287. 

Spain,  XXII.  304. 

Suffolk,  England,  XXII.  620 

Sumatra,  XXII.  640. 

Surrey,  England,  XXII.  692. 

Sussex,  England,  XXII.  722. 


^^? 


122  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Switzerland,  XXII.  776. 

Tasmania — county  map,  XXIII.  72. 

Tennessee  and  Kentucky — county  map,  XXIII.  176. 

Texas — county  map,  XXIII.  202. 

Tibet,  XXIII.  336. 

Tripoli  and  Tunis,  XXIII.  576. 

Turkey,  XXIII.  652. 

North  and  South  Virginia  in  1620,  XXIII.  729. 

English  Colonies  in  America,  XXIII.  730. 

The  United  States,  XXIII.  790. 

Territorial  Growth  of  the  United  States,  XXIII. 
791. 

Rainfall  Chart  of  the  United  States,  XXIII.  804. 

Temperature  Chart  of  the  United  States,  XXIII. 
805. 

Uruguay  XXIV.  16. 

Utah— county  map,  XXIV.  18. 

Vancouver's  Island,  XXIV.  56. 

Venezuela,  showing  political  divisions,  XXIV.  140. 

Vermont  and  New  Hampshire — county  map,  XXIV. 
168. 

Victoria,  Australia,  XXIV.  216. 

Virginia — county  map,  XXIV.  257. 

Warwick,  England,  XXIV.  378. 

Washington  (State) — county  map,  XXIV.  384. 

Westmoreland,  England,  XXIV.  513. 

West  Australia,  XXIV.  508. 

West  Indies,  XXIV.  509. 

West  Indies — chart  of  sea  depths,  XXIV.  509. 

Wiltshire,  England,  XXIV.  592. 

Wisconsin — county  map,  XXIV.  616. 

Worcestershire,  England,  XXIV.  664. 

Wyoming — county  map,  XXIV.  712. 

Yorkshire,  England,  XXIV.  746. 


READINGS   IN  GEOGRAPHY.  123 

PLAIN   MAPS. 

These  are  so  numerous  that  we  shall  name  only  a  few  of 
the  most  important : 

Atlantic  Ocean  (showing  currents),  III.  16. 

The  Bahama  Islands,  III.  236. 

Baluchistan,  III.  299. 

Sketch  map  of  Belgium,  III.  514. 

Plan  of  Berlin,  III.  594. 

Plan  of  Bristol,  IV.  348. 

Map  of  Burmah,  IV.  551. 

Plan  of  Calcutta,  IV.  656. 

Maps  of  great  canals,  IV.  793,  794. 

Map  of  Ceylon,  V.  359. 

Plan  of  Chicago,  V.  610. 

Plan  of  Cincinnati,  V.  783. 

Map  of  Constantinople,  VI.  305. 

Plan  of  Copenhagen,  VI.  343. 

Sketch-map  of  Corea,  VI.  390. 

Map  of  Cornwall,  England  (double  page),  VI.  424. 

Map  of  Cumberland,  England  (double  page),  VI.  696. 

Plan  of  Edinburgh,  VII.  660. 

Map  of  Mount  ,/Etna  and  Vicinity,  VIII.  626. 

Plan  of  Geneva,  X.  147. 

Plan  of  Glasgow,  X.  638. 

Map  of  Guiana,  XL  249. 

Plan  of  Halifax,  XI.  384. 

Plan  of  Hamburg,  XI.  405. 

Plan  of  Jersey  City,  XIII.  635. 

Plan  of  Lisbon,  XIV.  691. 

Plan  of  Liverpool,  XIV.  713. 

Norden's  map  of  Tudor  London,  XIV.  847. 

Map  of  Long  Island,  XIV.  865. 

Plan  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  XV.  23. 


124  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Plan  of  Madras,  XV.  188. 
Plan  of  Madrid,  XV.  190. 
The  Maldive  Islands,  XV.  328. 
Plan  of  Manchester,  XV.  460. 

Mercator's  Novis  ct  Aucta  Or  bis  Descriptio,  1569,  XV. 
521. 

Plan  of  Marseilles,  XV.  571. 

Map  of  Mauritius,  XV.  639. 

Plan  of  Melbourne,  XV.  836. 

Plan  of  Milan,  XVI.  291. 

Map  of  Montenegro,  XVI.  780. 

Plan  of  Montreal,  XVI.  794. 

Plan  of  Moscow,  XVI.  857. 

Map  of  Naples,  XVII.  188. 

Map  of  Natal,  XVII.  240. 

Plan  of  New  Orleans,  XVII.  403. 

New  York  in  1695  and  1728,  XVII.  458. 

Plan  of  Olympia  (Greece),  XVII.  767. 

Plan  of  Pittsburg,  XIX.  150. 

Plan  of  Pompeii,  XIX.  446. 

Map  of  the  Punjab,  XX.  107. 

Plan  of  the  Forum  Romanum,  XX.  816. 

Plan  of  the  Palatine  Hill,  Rome,  XX.  822. 

St.  Petersburgh,  XXI.  192. 

Geological  map  of  Texas,  XXIII.  203. 

Cotidal  lines  of  the  world,  XXIII.  372. 

Turkestan,  XXIII.  632. 

Map  of  Venice,  XXIV.   157. 

Plan  of  Verona,  XXIV.  171. 

Plan  of  Washington,  D.  C,  XXIV.  383. 

IV.    MISCELLANEOUS   GEOGRAPHICAL    SUBJECTS. 

Some  interesting  and  curious  selections  worth  reading 
in  connection  with  the  study  of  geography : 


READINGS   IN   GEOGRAPHY.  125 

Geographic  names,  sup.  1380. 

The  Sahara  Desert,  XXI.  149.      Latest  dis- 
Interesting    coveries  in,  sup.  60. 
Topics.  Dead  Sea,  VII.  I. 

Sargasso  Sea,  III.  20,  26. 
Mount  Vesuvius,  XXIV.  195. 
Volcanoes,  X.  240. 
Earthquakes,  VII.  608. 
Mammoth  Cave,  XV.  448. 

Niagara  Falls,  XVII.  472  ;  Yosemite  Falls,  IV.  697, 698. 
The  Black  Forest,  XXIV.  669. 
Gibraltar,  English  fortress  in  Spain,  X.  583. 
Polar  Regions,  XIX.   315,  330  and  sup.  2408.     These 
two  articles  give  a  complete  history  of  arctic  exploration 
and  adventure  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present. 
Recent  explorations  in  Africa,  sup.  59. 
Famous    Cities   and    Towns;  Aix-la-Chapelle,  I.    431; 
Alexandria,   I.  493-496;  Athens,   III.    i;    Baden-Baden, 
III.  226  ;  Baghdad,  III.  231  ;  Benares,  III.  555  ;  Berlin,  III. 
593;  Boston,  IV.  72;  Bristol,   IV.  348;  Brook- 
Famous        lyn,  IV.  370 ;  Brussels,  IV.  404  ;  Cabul,  IV.  623  ; 
Cities.         Cairo,  IV.   645  ;  Calcutta,  IV.  556;  Cambridge, 
IV.    728;  Chicago,   V.   610;     Edinburgh,  VII. 
658;  Havana,  XL   524;  London,   XIV.  818    (see  Index 
volume,  page    265);    Madrid,   XV.    189;     New    Orleans, 

XVII.  402;  New  York,  XVII.  457  (see   Index  volume, 
page  3 1 2);   Paris,   XVIII.   274  (see   Index  volume,   page 
332) ;   Rome,  XX.  833  (see  Index  volume,  page  377) ;  St. 
Petersburgh,  XX.  190;  Venice,  XXIV.  141  (see  Index  vol- 
ume, page  456),;   Vienna,  XXIV.  219;  Versailles,  XXIV. 
176;  Jerusalem,  XIII.  636;  Ispahan,  XIII.  393  ;  Palmyra, 

XVIII.  198;  Antioch,  II.    130;  Tyre,  XXIII.  710 ;  Con- 
stantinople, VI.    302 ;     Mecca,    XV.    669 ;    Medina,    XV. 
817. 


126  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

V.      THE    UNITED   STATES. 

See  the  special  article,  XXIII.  729-829,  and  the  index 
on  the  last   page.     See  also  the  historical  and 
Our  statistical  view  of  the  United  States,  sup.  2983. 

Country.  Both  of  these  long  articles  are  interesting  and 
comprehensive,  presenting  a  complete  exposi- 
tion of  the  geographical  features  of  the  country,  together 
with  an  account  of  its  history,  industries,  and  natural 
resources. 

Each  of  the  States  and  Territories  is  treated  in  a  simi- 
lar manner,  both  in  the  body  of  the  Britannica  and  also 
in  the  supplements.  For  example,  for  Arizona,  see  II. 
538  and  sup.  230 ;  Arkansas,  II.  539  and  sup.  232.  All 
these  may  be  easily  found  without  any  further  help  from 
the  GUIDE. 


READINGS   IN   METEOROLOGY.  1 2/ 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

A  BRIEF  COURSE   OF   READING   IN   METEOROLOGY. 

"When  it  is  evening,  ye  say  it  will  be  fair  weather:  for  the  sky  is 
red.  And  in  the  morning,  it  will  be  foul  weather  to-day  :  for  the  sky  is 
red  and  lowring." — St.  Matthew. 

METEOROLOGY,  in  its  later  and  more  strictly  definite  sig- 
nification, is  the  scientific  study  of  weather  and  climate, 
their  causes,  changes,  relations,  and  effects.  In  the  Ency- 
clopedia Britannica,  there  is  a  comprehensive  treatise 
upon  this  science  written  by  Professors  A.  Buchan,  of 
Edinburgh,  and  Balfour  Stewart,  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.  It  embraces  seventy  double-column 
General  Pages>  equal  in  matter  to  a  duodecimo  volume 
Treatise.  of  more  than  350  pages,  and  is  fully  illustrated. 
(See  XVI.  1 14-184.)  The  supplementary  article 
(sup.  2043)  is  equally  valuable  and  comprehensive. 

A  short  and  instructive  course  of  reading  in  meteor- 
ology would  include,  besides  the  main  points  in  these 
leading  articles,  the  following  references : 

Air,  I.  427. 

Atmosphere,  III.  28. 

Ozone,  XVIII.  113. 

Temperature,  XI.  555.     (See  general  index.) 

Thermometer,  XXIII.  288. 

Climate,  VI.  I. 

Principal  causes  which  determine  climate,  VI.  2. 

Effect  of  vegetation  on  climate,  VI.  4. 

Temperature  of  the  sea,  XVI.  116,  132. 

Influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream  upon  climate,  III.  21. 


128  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA, 

Influence   of  the   Kuro  Siwe,  or  Japan  current,  XVIII. 
118. 

Hygienic  value  of  Ocean  climate,  V.  I,  5. 

Distribution  of  temperature,  XVI.  134. 
Tempera-       Humidity  of  the  air>  XVI.   1 I9,  III.  32. 

Dew,  XVI.  120. 

Diurnal  oscillations  of  the  barometer,  XVI.  121. 
Barometer,  III.  381. 

Atmospheric  pressure,  III.  28;  XVI.  139. 
Influence  of  the  moon  upon  atmospheric  pressure,  XVI. 
124. 

Winds,  XVI.  143. 
Anemometer,  II.  24. 
Relation  of  winds  to  climate,  VI.  6. 
Variation  in  the  direction  of  winds,  XVI.  126. 
Trade  winds,  XVI.  143  ;  influence  upon  climate,  I.  675. 
Monsoons,  II.  690. 
Isobars,  XVI.  141. 

The  simoom,  II.  239. 
Winds         Cyclones,  III.  33;  XVI.  155. 

Whirlwinds  and  waterspouts,  XVI.  129. 

Tornadoes,  XXIII.  807. 
Blizzards,  sup.  499. 
Hurricanes,  XVI.  164. 
Prevailing  winds,  XVI.  143. 
Aqueous  vapor,  XVI.  138. 
Clouds,  XVI.  126. 

Rainfall,  XVL  128,  150;  influence  upon  climate,  VI.  6- 
rain-gauge,  XX.  256. 

Thunderstorms,  XVI.  129. 

Hailstorms,  XVI.  131. 

Snowstorms,  XVI.  154. 

Hygrometry,  XII.  569. 
Weather  and  weather  maps,  XVI.  157. 


READINGS   IN   METEOROLOGY.  1 29 

.    Weather  forecasts,  XVI.  158. 

American  Weather  Bureau,  sup.  2043. 
The  Increase  Allen  Lapham,  founder  of  the  wea- 

Weather 
Bureau.         ther   bureau,  Sup.   1834. 

Flags  used  by  the  weather  bureau,  sup.  1617. 
Terrestrial  Magnetism,  XVI.  159. 
The  magnetometer,  XV.  238. 
The  declinometer,  XVI.  159. 

The  dip  circle,  XVI.  160. 

Terrestrial       Magnetic  poles  of  the  earth,  XVI.  163. 
Magnetism.       Influence  of  the  sun  upon  terrestrial  magnet- 
ism, XVI.  167,  181. 
Optical  Meteorology  (see  Optics). 
Aurora  borealis,  III.  90,  II.  787. 


130  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


For 


CHAPTER  XV. 

READINGS    IN    MATHEMATICS. 

"  He  apprehends  a  world  of  figures  here.' 

—Henry  IV. 

"  Inquire  about  everything  that  you  do  not  know  ;  since,  for  the  small 
trouble  of  asking,  you  will  be  guided  in  the  road  of  knowledge." 

— From  the  Persian. 

IN  the  Britannica,  each  of  the  great  branches  of  mathe- 
matical science  is  treated  under  its  own  head  and  at   con- 
siderable length,  and  yet  it  is  not  presumed  that 

any  person  will  attempt  to  acquire  the   mastery 
Reference         /    r  . 

Only  °f  arithmetic,  or  algebra,  or  geometry  from 
these  articles.  Here,  if  anywhere,  the  guidance 
of  the  living  teacher  and  the  assistance  of  specially  pre- 
pared text-books  are  absolutely  essential.  The  mathe- 
matical treatises  in  the  Britannica,  therefore,  are  valuable 
chiefly  for  occasional  reference — they  are  not  intended  for 
general  study,  and  certainly  not  for  popular  reading. 
Students  and  teachers,  however,  will  frequently  be  able 
to  derive  valuable  assistance  from  them  in  the  solving 
of  knotty  problems  or  in  the  elucidation  of  difficult  prop- 
ositions. It  is  well,  therefore,  to  remember  where  they 

can  be  found. 

i 

HISTORY   OF    MATHEMATICS. 

The  history  of  mathematics  is  a  subject  in  which  every 
student,  whether  he  be  a  mathematician  or  not,  must  feel 
no  little  interest ;  and  it  is  to  a  knowledge  of  this  subject 


READINGS   IN    MATHEMATICS.  131 

rather  than  to  the  abstruse  study  of  any  particular  branch 

of  the  science  that  the  present  course  of  reading  points. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  reader  has  already  some 

Ancient       general  acquaintance  with  the  elementary  prin- 

Mathemat-       .  ....  .  ..         .. 

ics  ciples  ot   mathematics,  derived,  as  is  ordinarily 

the  case,  from  the  text-books  used  at  school. 
These  readings  from  the  Britannica  will  supplement  his 
present  knowledge,  and  perhaps  encourage  him  to  advance 
still  farther  in  his  acquisitions. 

The  best  introduction  to  this  course  is  the  short  article 
on  MATHEMATICS,  XV.  629.  Read  especially  the  histori- 
cal parts,  and  omit,  until  a  future  time,  such  sections  and 
paragraphs  as  seem  too  technical  or  too  difficult  for  ready 
comprehension. 

Notice  what  is  said  of  Pythagorean  mathematics,  XX. 
140,  and  of  Hindu  mathematics,  XXI.  294. 

Now  read  the  historical  portion  of  the  article  on  ARITH- 
METIC, II.  524-526.  The  paragraphs  relating  to  the  dif- 
ferent methods  of  notation  are  especially  interesting,  and 
may  be  read  in  connection  with  the  article  on  Numerals, 
XVII.  626.  The  biographies  of  the  following  distinguished 
arithmeticians  should  be  read  next  : 

Archimedes,    the    greatest    mathematician    of   ancient 
times,  II.  380. 

Apollonius  of  Perga,  who  flourished  a  little 

Mathema-     , 

ticians        later  than  Archimedes,  II.  187. 

Diophantus,  a  Greek  writer  on  arithmetic,  4th 
century,  I.  511. 

Maximus  Planudes  (died  1350),  referred  to  in  XVII. 
627. 

Robert  Recorde  (1558),  author  of  an  algebra  entitled 
The  Whetstone  of  Witte,  and  of  one  of  the  first  arithmetics 
published  in  English,  XX.  310. 

Next  turn  to  the  history  of  algebra,  I.  511-518.     Notice 


132  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

the  list  of  writers  on  algebra,  page  518.     Read  the  follow, 
ing  biographies  of  distinguished  algebraists. 

Girolamo  Cardan  (i6th  century),  author  of  the  second 
printed  book  on  algebra,  V.  90. 
Rene  Descartes,  VII.  115. 
Joseph  Lewis  Lagrange,  XIV.  207. 
Leonard  Euler,  demonstrator  of  the  binomial 
theorem,  VIII.  665. 

Fourier,  author  of  Fourier's  theorem,  IX.  490. 
Sturm,  author  of  Sturm's  theorem,  XXII.  612. 
Leonard  of  Pisa,  XIX.  125. 

The  history  of  geometry  is  very  briefly  told  in  X.  376. 
Concerning  great  geometricians,  it  will  be  well 
of  course  to  refer  first  to   Euclid,  the   greatest 
of  them  all.     Read  his  biography,  VIII.  655. 
Then  notice  the  following : 
Thales,  XXIII.  218. 
Theodosius,  XXIII.  260. 

Pythagorean  contributions  to  the  science  of  geometry, 
XX.  139. 

Apollonius  of  Perga,  II.  188. 
Boetius  on  geometry,  III.  857. 
Legendre's  work  on  geometry,  XIV.  414. 
For  the  history  of  Greek  trigonometry,  see   XX.  87, 
under  the  article  on  Ptolemy;  a  brief  notice  of 
Trigonom-    Indian   and   Arabian   trigonometry  is  given  in 
etry.        XXIII.   561,  and   an  account  of  modern  trigo- 
nometry in   XXIII.  562.     Of  biographies,  read 
the  following : 

Hipparchus,  Greek  mathematician,  XI.  851. 
John  Napier,  inventor  of  logarithms,  XVII.  177. 
Edmund   Gunter,  inventor  of  the  terms  cosine,  cotan- 
gent, etc.,  XI.  330. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton,  XVII.  438. 


READINGS   IN   MATHEMATICS.  133 

Gottfried  Leibnitz,  XIV.  417. 

Besides  the  mathematicians  already  mentioned,  there 
are  several  others  whose  biographies  are  given  in  the 
Britannica.  In  order  to  acquire  a  complete  knowledge  of 
the  history  of  the  science,  you  should  learn 
Men  of  something  about  these  men.  Here  is  a  partial 
Figures.  list  which,  if  you  wish,  you  will  be  able  to  ex- 
tend as  you  progress  with  the  reading : 

Pappus  of  Alexandria,  XVIII.  229. 

Alhazen  (nth  century),  I.   572. 

Henry  Briggs  (i6th  century),  IV.  343. 

Thomas  Allen  (i6th  century),  I.  583. 

Simon  Stevinus  (i7th  century),  XXII.  531. 

Alexander  Anderson  (i7th  century),  II.  14. 

Gaspard  Monge  (i8th  century),  XVI.  738. 

Thomas  Simpson,  XXII.  866. 

Robert  Simson,  XXII.  876. 

Jakob  Steiner  (iQth  century),  XXII.  531. 

George  Peacock,  XVIII.  443. 

Christiaan  Huygens  (i 7th  century),  XII.  415. 

For  a  popular  course  of  reading  in  the  history  of  mathe- 
matics, perhaps  the  foregoing  is  sufficient.  Besides  the 
four  branches  of  the  science  already  mentioned,  there  are 
others  upon  which  the  Britannica  contains  valuable  and 
scholarly  articles  intended  particularly  for  specialists  in 
mathematics.  Several  additional  articles  also  on  mathe- 
matical subjects  may  be  found  under  their  own 
Mathemati-  headings  or  by  reference  to  the  Index.  The 

Topics  GUIDE  ventures  to  name  here  the  following, 
not  that  they  should  be  included  in  any  course 
of  reading,  but  simply  to  remind  the  student  of  their  pres- 
ence in  the  Britannica,  and  to  indicate  where  he  may 
find  them  if  occasion  should  require  that  he  should  refer 
to  them  : 


134  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA  , 

Abacus  (arithmetical  device),  I.  4. 

Calculating  machines,  IV.  654. 

Squaring  the  circle,  XXII.  433. 

Annuities,   II.  72. 

Astronomy,  XXIV.  85. 

The  Almagest,  I.  589. 

Angles,  II.  29. 

Curve,  VI.  716. 

Calculus,  XIII.  5. 

Functions,  IX.  818;  XIV.  209,413. 

Geodesy,  X.  163. 

Gauging,  XVI.  28. 

Logarithms,  XIV.  772. 

Measurement,  XV.  659. 

Mechanics,  XV.  676. 

Quaternions,  XX.  160. 

Surveying,  XXII.  695. 

Variations,  XXIV.  85. 

Probability,  XIX.  768. 

Projections,  XIX.  793. 

Surface,  Congruence,  Complex,  XXII.  668. 


READINGS   IN   PHYSICS.  135 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

TWO    COURSES   OF   READING   IN   PHYSICS. 
COURSE   I. 

PHYSICAL  science  originally  had  reference  to  a  knowl- 
edge of  whatever  exists  in  the  material  universe,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  metaphysical  science,  or  a  knowledge  of 
the  laws  of  mind.  In  this  sense  it  was  synonymous  with 
natural  science.  With  the  progress  of  scientific  study, 
however,  these  two  terms  have  come  to  have, 
Physical  each  a  distinctive  meaning  of  its  own.  Natural 
Science.  science  now  has  reference  more  particularly  to 
the  study  of  organized  bodies  and  their  develop- 
ment. Physical  science  investigates  the  various  phenom- 
ena observed  in  things  without  life  ;  in  other  words,  it  is 
a  study  of  the  laws  of  matter. 

Until  recently  the  popular  name  for  physical  science 
was  "  natural  philosophy." 

As  now  generally  regarded,  it  includes  two  branches, 
mechanics  and  physics. 

For  readings  in  MECHANICS,  see  the  article  on  that  sub- 
ject in  the  fifteenth  volume  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica. 
See  also  the  chapters  in  this  GUIDE  entitled  The  Mechanic 
and  The  Machinist. 

Since  any  knowledge  of  physics  implies  a  study  of  the 
laws  of  matter,  let  us  at  first  take  a  general  survey  of  some 
of  the  most  important  of  those  laws. 


136  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

What  is  matter  ?     We  do  not  know.     But  to  gain  some 
ideas  of  the  extent  of  human  knowledge  on  this  subject, 
read  the  articles  ATOM,   III.  36,  and  Molecule, 
Matter.  XVI.  6lO  :   VII.  21  5. 

Some  knowledge  of  the  properties  which  mat- 
ter possesses  in  itself  may  be  acquired  by  study- 
ing the  following  topics : 

Molecules,  XVI.  610;  III.  38. 

Inertia,  XV.  676. 

Constitution  of  Bodies,  VI.  310. 

Attraction,  III.  63;  XI.  66;  XV.  702. 

Adhesion,  I.  153. 

Elasticity,  VII.  796. 

Density,  XV.  698;  XII.  536. 

Compressibility,  VII.  815. 

Divisibility,  III.  37  ;  sup.  1054. 

The  relative  properties  of  different  kinds  of  matter  are 
described  in  such  articles  as  these : 

Diffusion,  VII.  214. 

Cohesion,  V.  56. 

Gravitation,  XI.  66;  the  law  of  gravitation  II.  780; 
Newton's  discovery  of  this  law,  II.  755. 

Capillary  action,  V.  56. 

A  consideration  of  the  properties  of  matter  relative  to 
different  forms  of  energy  leads  to  a  study  of  the  follow- 
ing subjects : 

Conductivity,  XL  578,  586  (thermal),  and  VIII.  52 
(electric). 

Specific  gravity,  XII.  536;  Specific  heat,  XL  576. 

Color,  VIII.  823. 

Radiation,  XX.  212. 

The  laws  and  phenomena  of  matter  are  treated  under 
many  distinct  divisions ;  and  hence  in  physics  we  find 
several  related  sciences,  such  as : 


READINGS   IN   PHYSICS.  137 

(1)  HYDROMECHANICS,  or  the  laws  of  liquids,  whether 
in  equilibrium  or  in  motion,  XII.  435-     Here  are  included  : 

Hydrostatics,     referring    to    liquids    at  rest, 
Hydrome-      XIX.  2  ;    XII.  44O- 
chanics.  Hydraulics,  or  the  action  of  liquids  in  motion, 

XII.  459- 

Closely  related  to  these  subjects  is  that  branch  of  me- 
chanics called  hyrodynamics,  which  is  discussed  in  con- 
nection with  them,  XII.  435  ;  XIX.  241. 

(2)  PNEUMATICS,  or  the  science    which  treats  of  the 
properties  of  air  and  of  gases  in  general,  XIV.  240. 

Many  articles  on  related  subjects  might  be  read  in  con- 
nection with  a  study  of  this  branch.     The  fol- 
lowing will  be  found  interesting  and  instructive  : 
Pneumatics.  TTT  .  *; 

Gases,  VI.  310;  diffusion  of,  VII.   215;  mo- 
lecular theory  of,  III.  38  ;  density  of,  XII.  460.; 
laws  of,  V.  468  ;  elasticity  of,  VII.  801. 

Air,  I.  427  ;  aerostatics,  IX.  308  ;  aeronautics,  I.  185  ; 
atmosphere,  III.  28. 

(3)  ACOUSTICS,  or  the  science  which  treats  of  the  nature, 
phenomena,  and  laws  of  sound,  I.  100  (see  general  index); 

see  also   Music,  XVII.   77,  and  many  of   the 
references  in  the  chapter  entitled  The  Musician, 

Acoustics.      .       ,  .      _ 

in  this  GUIDE. 

Voice,  XXIV.  273. 
Telephone,  XXIII.  127. 
Phonometer,  sup.  2369;  Phonoscope,  sup.  2369. 

(4)  OPTICS,  or  the  science  of  light,  XVII.  798.     In  con- 

nection with  this  subject  read  the  following : 

Light,  XIV.  577  ;  aberration  of  light,  I.  47  ; 
reflection  of  light,  XVI.  64 ;  the  velocity  of  light, 
XX.  620;  polarization  of  light,  sup.  2412;  the 
theory  of  light,  XXIV.  421,  444-447. 
Mirror,  XIV.  587;  XVI.  499. 


138  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Lenses,  XIV.  593. 
Microscope,  XVI.  258. 

Telescope,  XXIII.  135  ;  Galileo's,  II.  753,  X.  31  ;  Lord 
Rosse's,  XX.  855  ;  Herschel's,  XL  766. 
Spectacles,  XXII.  372. 
Spectrometer,  XVII.  800. 
Spectroscope,  XXII.  373. 
Camera,  IV.  740,  741  ;  XVIII.  839. 
Eye,  VIII.  816. 
Aurora  polaris,  III.  90,  92,  93. 
Rainbow,  XL  399. 
Optical  illusions,  II.  205. 
Vitascope,  sup.  3057. 
Mirage,  XIV.  600. 

(5)  HEAT,  XL  554.     The  reading  of  this  long  and  very 
scholarly  article  may  be  supplemented  by  a  study  of   the 
following  references  : 

Temperature  (see  general  index). 
Thermometer,  XL  561. 
Theory  of  heat,  XIX.  2. 

Conduction  of  heat,  XX.  212. 
Heat  Convection  of  heat,  XX.  212. 

Heat  as  the  equivalent  of  force,  XV.  649. 

Power  of  heat  in  mechanics,  XV.  773. 
Steam,  XL  560;  properties  of,  XXII.  483. 

(6)  Electricity  and  Magnetism.     See  the  chapter  entitled 
The  Electrician,  in  this  GUIDE. 

COURSE    II. 

The  late  Professor  J.  Clark  Maxwell,  in  the  article  on  phys- 
ical science  which  he  contributes  to  the  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica,  presents  a  classification  somewhat  different  from 
the  above.  Physics  includes  what  he  calls  the  secondary 
physical  sciences.  A  study  of  these  sciences  embraces 


READINGS   IN   PHYSICS.  139 

the   acquisition    of   knowledge    relative   to  the  following 
topics,  and  in  the  order  here  named  : 

(i)   Theory  of  gravitation  (XI.  66;    111.64), 

Weight  and  with  discussions  of  the  weight  and  motion  of 

Motion,      bodies  near  the  earth.     See  Motion,  XV.  752, 

and  particularly  XV.  701,  715,  746. 

(2)  Theory  of  the  action  of  pressure  and  heat  in  changing 
the  dimensions  and  state  of  bodies. 

(a)  Physical  states  of    a  substance — gaseous 

(VI.  310),  liquid  (VI.  31 1  ;  XII.  459),  solid  (XIX. 
Heat. 

240). 

Elasticity,  VII.  796;   of  gases,  VII.  801  ;   of 
liquids,  VII.  801  ;   of  solids,  VI.  310. 

Viscosity,VII.  801  ;  of  gases,  XVI.  618  ;  of  solids,  XXII. 
598. 

Plasticity  (of  solids),  XVI.  65  ;  Capillarity,  I.  153. 
Tenacity  (of  solids),  XVI.  378. 
Cohesion  and  adhesion,  I.  153. 

(b).  Effects  of  heat  in  raising  temperature  (XV.  773), 
altering  size  and  form  (XVI.  66,  XIX.  2),  changing  physi- 
cal state  (XXIII.  283  ;  XXII.  473). 

(c).  Thermometry,  XL  558;  XXIII.  288. 
(d).  Calorimetry,  XX.  132;   XI.  555. 
(e).  Thermodynamics,  XXIII.  283;  XXII.  479;  XV.  649. 
(f).  Dissipation  of  energy  (XXIII.  285)  by  diffusion  of 
matter,  etc. 

Diffusion  of  motion  (XXIII.  543;  VIII.  207)  by  internal 
friction  of  fluids  (XII.  482;  XIX.  247). 

Diffusion  of  heat  (VII.  217)  by  conduction  (XX.  212). 
.  (g).  Theory  of  propagation  of  sound,  I.  100. 
Vibration  of  strings,  etc.,  XVII.  105;  I.   116. 
3.   Theory  of  radiance. 
(a).  Geometrical  optics,   XVII.  798. 
Theory  of  conjugate  foci,  XVII.  799. 


140  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Optical  instruments,  XVII.  801,  806. 

(b).  Velocity  of  light,  II.  797;  XXIV.  458. 

(c).   Prismatic  analysis  of  light,  XIV.  5 19, 612. 

Spectroscopy,  XXII.  373. 
Radiance.  *  VTTT  * 

Fluorescence,  XIV.  579,  602. 

(d).  Diffraction  of  light,  XXIV.  430,  442. 
(e).  The  wave  theory  of  light,  XIV.  603. 
(f).  Polarized  light,  XIV.  610. 
(g).  Theory  of  primary  colors,  VIII.  823. 
The  spectrum,  XIV.  592,  595. 
4.  Electricity  and  magnetism. 
(a).   Electrostatics,  VIII.  24;  VIII.  14. 
(b).  Electrokinematics,    or   distribution   of  currents  in 
conductors  (see  index  VIII.  105). 

Electrolysis,  VIII.  106. 

Magnetism,       Electro-chemistry,  VIII.  13,  112  ;  VI.  846. 
etc.  (c).  Magnetism,  XV.  219. 

Terrestrial  magnetism,  XVI.  159. 
Diamagnetism  XV.  244,  262  ;  IX.  285. 
(d).  Electro-magnetism,  VIII.  66. 


READINGS   IN   THE   STUDY   OF   MAN.  1 4  I 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

READINGS   IN   THE   STUDY   OF   MAN. 
"The  proper  study  of  mandkind  is  man."  —  Pope., 

A  COMPLETE  study  of  Man  in  all  his  various  relations 
to  the  animal  and  spiritual   world  would   embrace  an  in- 
vestigation  of   many   branches  of   knowledge, 

Divisions  h  OCCUpying  a  distinct   field  of   its  own,  but 

of  the 
Subject        each  dependent  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  upon 

its  kindred   sciences.     Among  these  branches 
the  following  are  the  most  important : 

1.  Anatomy,  which  treats   of  the  structure  of   the  hu- 
man body  (see  I.  799). 

2.  Physiology,  which  treats  of  the  functions  and  rela- 
tions of  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  XIX.  8. 

3.  Psychology,  which  investigates  the  operations  of  the 
human    mind    (see    references    in    chapter    entitled    The 
Teacher). 

4.  Philology,  which  deals  with  the  general  principles  of 
language  (see  chapter  on  that  subject  in  this  GUIDE). 

5.  Ethics,  which  treats  of  man's  duty  to  his  fellow-men 
(see  references  in  chapter  on  PJdlosophy  in  this  GUIDE). 

6.  Sociology,  which  treats  of  the  origin  and   develop- 
ment   of  human    institutions,    VIII.    619;    XVIII.   796; 
XIX.  347- 

7.  Religion,   which   deals   with  man's   relations  to  the 
spiritual  world,  and  his  duties  to  God  (see  the  chapter  en- 
titled The  Preacher  and  Theologian). 

8.  Anthropology,  the  natural  history  of  man. 

9.  Ethnology  or  Ethnography — properly  a 


B*v 


142  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

of  Anthropology — which  deals  with  the  subdivisions  of  the 
human  race,  such  as  hordes,  clans,  tribes,  nations,  etc. 

10.  Archaeology   and    Antiquities,    which    treat  of  the 
early  history  of  man,  and  of  the  remains  of  ancient  art. 

11.  History  (see  Chapter  VI.  in  this  GUIDE). 

It  is  proposed  to  indicate  in  the  present  chapter  a  few 
courses  of  reading  from  the  Britannica  which  shall  cover 
only  the  subjects  numbered  8,  9,  10,  and  6,  above. 

I.    ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Let  us  take  as  the  basis  of  our  studies  the  comprehen- 
sive  and  scholarly  article   by   Professor    E.   B.   Tylor  in 
volume  II.,  pages  107-123.     As  to  man's  place 
Origin  of       m  nature,  refer  to  the  article  Animal  Kingdom, 
Man.          11.49.     Certain  portions  also  of  the  following 
articles  maybe  read  :  Physiology,  XIX.  8  ;  His- 
tology, XII.  4.     See,  also,   XV.  444,  and  the  articles  on 
Evolution,  VIII.  744. 
Heredity,  sup.  1568. 
Charles  Darwin,  sup.  989. 
Ape,  II.  148. 

Man  and  Monkeys,  II.  107. 

Concerning  the  origin  of  man,  see  the  following  :  I.  136  ; 
X.  291  ;  II.  333,  341  ;  also  the  myths  of  his  creation,  III.  141  ; 
XVII.  157.  Read  the  section  on  this  subject  in  II.  no. 

The  chapter  on  the  races  of  mankind,  II.  1 1  i-i  1 5,  may  be 
supplemented  by  the  references  under  Ethnology,  below. 
Concerning  the  antiquity  of  man,  read  the  sections  in 
X.  368,  and  II.  115  ;  then  see  the  references  under  Archae- 
ology, below. 

Read  the  section   on  language,  II.  117-120; 
Language,     also  the  following  : 

Evolutionary  theories  of  language,  VIII.  769. 
Relation  of  language  to  thought,  XX.  75. 


READINGS   IN   THE   STUDY   OF   MAN.  143 

Relation  of  language  to  mythology,  XVII.  137. 
(See  Chapter  VIII.  in  this  volume). 

Study  next  the  development  of  civilization 

and    culture.     Read  section    vi.,    volume     II., 
Culture. 

pages   120-123  ;  and  also  what    is   said  of  the 

earliest   seats    of  civilization,    II.  342,  and    of 
Buckle's  theory  of  civilization,  IV.  421. 

II.  ETHNOLOGY. 

Read  by  sections  the  article  entitled  Ethnography,  VIII. 

613-626.  (Observe  the  distinction  between  Ethnography 

and  Ethnology,  p.  613).  The  following  are  a  few 

of  the  articles  or  sections  which  will  be  found 
Races.  .  .  .«•"•• 

interesting  in  connection  with  this  study. 

The  Family,  IX.  17. 

Tribes  among  Primitive  Races,  IX.  20. 

Races  of  mankind,  II.  in. 

Ages  of  man,  II.  122,  also  II.  336-341. 

Food,  VIII.  616. 

Fire,  IX.  227-232. 

Religious     Development    (see     chapter    entitled     The 
Preacher  and  Theologian,  in  this  volume). 

Myths  and  Legends,  VIII.  623  ;  VIII.  837  ;  XVII.  135; 
XXIII.  28;  IX.  358. 

Magic,  XV.  199. 

Superstitions,  VIII.  623  (see  also  the  references  named 
in  Chapter  XX.  of  this  GUIDE). 

For  the  characteristics  which  distinguish  man 

Character-     m  different  countries,  see  under  the  head  of  each 

istics.        country.     For  example,  for  Man  in  Africa,  see 

the  article  Africa,  I.  260 ;  so  also  we  shall  find, 

Man  in  Algeria,  I.  564 ; 

Man  in  America,  I.  686  ; 

Man  in  Arabia,  II.  245  ; 


144  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Man  in  Asia,  II.  697 ; 

Man  in  Australia,  III.  1 18  ; 
and  so  on,  for  every  country  of  importance  in  the  world. 

Some  curious  races  are  also  described  in  an  entertaining 
way : 

The  Natives  of  the  Andaman  Islands,  II.  n. 

The  Hottentots,  XII.  309. 

The  Bushmen,  IV.  575. 

The  Bongo,  IV.  32. 

The  Ainos  of  Japan,  I.  426. 

The  Dyaks,  IV.  58. 

The  Czechs,  VI.  754. 

The  Copts,  VI.  354. 

The  Cossacks,  VI.  448. 

The  Natives  of  Anam  (ugliest  in  the  world),  VI.  95. 

The  Esquimaux,  VIII.  543. 

The  Natives  of  Polynesia,  XIX.  422. 

The  Pueblo  Indians,  sup.  2473. 

Half  breeds  of  Manitoba,  sup.  1509. 

Concerning  the  origin  of  justice  and  morals,  and  their 
development    among    primitives   peoples,    see 

VIII.  624.  Also  marriage,  XV.  565;  IX.  18  ; 
Customs.  .  .  ___. 

totemistic  marriage  ceremonies,   XX111.    470; 

marriage  among  ancient  Mexicans,  XVI.  213  ; 
myths  relating  to  marriage,  XVII.  158. 

Cannibalism,  IV.  807. 

Totemism,  XXIII.  467. 

Ghost-dance  of  Indians,  sup.  1392. 

See  Frank  H.  Cushing,  sup.  971. 

See  also  the  readings  in  SOCIOLOGY,  suggested  in  this 
GUIDE. 

III.   ARCHAEOLOGY  AND   ANTIQUITIES. 
Under  this  head  we  shall  include  a  brief  survey  of  a  few 


READINGS   IN   THE   STUDY   OF   MAN.  145 

of  the  more  interesting  antiquities  described  in  various  ar- 
ticles in  the  Britannica.  No  attempt  will  be 
made  at  classification.  Read  first  the  brief  ar- 

Antiquities. 

ticle  on  Antiquities,  II.  134,  and  then  turn  to 
Archaeology,  II.  333.  This  latter  article  may  be 
studied  by  sections  in  connection  with  the  supplementary 
article  on  the  same  subject,  sup.  216.  See  also  Egyptol- 
ogy, sup.  1127;  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie,  sup.  2358. 

Then  read,  as  occasion  requires,  or  as  inclination  may 
direct,  the  following  articles,  which  have  been  selected  on 
account  of  their  interest  to  general  readers : 

Antiquity  of  Man,  II.  115. 

Antiquities  of  America,  I.  692. 

The  Mound  Builders,  III.  390. 

Ancient  American  Architecture,  II.  450. 

Ancient  Ruins  in  Yucatan,  XXIV.  758. 

Antiquities  of  Egypt,  VII.  767-784. 

Antiquities  of  Peru,  I.  696. 

Wall  of  Romulus,  XX.  812. 

Wall  of  Servius,  XX.  813. 

Wall  of  Antoninus,  II.  139. 

Wall  of  Hadrian,  XI.  723. 

Wall  sculptures  of  Babylon,  XVII.  34. 

Wall  decorations  in  Pompeii,  XVII,  37-41. 

Great  Wall  of  China,  V.  638,  644. 

Baalbec,  III.  176. 

The  Temple  of  Bel,  III.  183. 

Nineveh,  XVII.  511  ;  II.  397. 

Schliemann's  Researches  in  Ancient  Troy,  II.  341  ;  sup. 
2647. 

Olympia,  Recent  Discoveries  at,  XVII.  765. 

Mycenae,  Ancient  Remains  of,  XVII.  115. 

Cylopean  Masonry,  II.  346,  401. 

Remains  of  Masonry  in  Ithaca,  XIII.  517. 

10 


146  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Tiryns,  XXIII.  407. 

General  Di  Cesnola,  sup.  738,  and  his  discoveries  in 
Cyprus,  VI.  750,  note. 

Temple  of  Poseidon,  XVIII.  133. 

The  Palladium,  XVIII.  188. 

Painted  Tombs  of  Corneto,  VI.  423. 

Mummies,  XVII.  20. 

Pompeii,  XIX.  444. 

Herculaneum,  XI.  723. 

Cave  Animals  and  Cave  Man,  V.  266. 

Prehistoric  Stone  Circles,  II.  383. 

Stone  Monuments,  Dolmens,  etc.,  XXI.  50. 

Stonehenge,  XXII.  576. 

Ancient  Monuments  in  Peru,  II.  451. 

Stone  Monuments  in  Polynesia,  XIX.  428. 

Animal  Mounds  of  Wisconsin,  XXIV.  618. 

Druidic  Monuments,  XXI.  52. 

Ancient  Barrows,  III.  397. 

Old  Roman  Roads,  XX.  582. 

The  Catacombs,  V.  206-216. 

Ancient  Stone  Weapons,  II.  553. 

Ancient  Inscriptions,  XIII.  114-133. 

Ancient  Bottles,  IV.  167. 

Ancient  Bracelets,  IV.  187. 

Ancient  Bricks,  IV.  279. 

Ancient  Brooches,  IV.  369. 

Ancient  Lamps,  XIV.  247. 

Ancient  Mirrors,  XVI.  501. 

Ancient  Baths,  III.  434. 

Ancient  Mosaics,  XVI.  850. 

Ancient  Relics,  XX.  355. 

Relics  in  connection  with  Christian  thought  and  prac- 
tice, XX.  357. 

Remains  of  antique  art,  II.  134. 


READINGS   IN   THE   STUDY   OF   MAN.  147 

Ancient   rings ;    earliest  existing  rings,    cylinders,   Ro- 
man rings,  XX.  560 ;  Episcopal  rings,  poison  rings,  XX. 

56i. 

Ancient  Plate  (Assyrian,  Etruscan,  etc.),  XIX.  179-182. 
Ancient  Writing  Materials,  XVIII.  143,  232. 
Ancient  Pottery,  III.  189. 

Ancient  Textiles,  Weaving  in  Prehistoric  Times,  etc., 
XXIII.  206. 

Antiquarian  Societies,  II.  135. 
Archaeological  Societies,  XXII.  221. 
Asiatic  Societies,  sup.  265. 


148  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

READINGS    IN   PHILOSOPHY. 

PHILOSOPHY  is  a  term  the  meaning  and  scope  of  which 

have  varied  greatly  according  to  the  usage  of 

different  authors  and  different  ages.     The  aim 

of  the  courses  of  reading  which  we  shall  here 

attempt  to  indicate,  is  to  afford  a  general  view 

of  the  history  of  philosophic  ideas  from  the  earliest  times 

to  the  present,  with  a  brief  notice  of  some  of  the  famous 

schools  of  philosophy,  and  of  their  influence  upon  modern 

thought.     Of  the  large  number  of  articles  in  the  Brit  an- 

nica,  which  may  be   utilized  for   this   purpose,  only  those 

will  be   named  which  are  the  most   essential  to  a  general 

knowledge  of  the  subject,  or  which   are  deemed  to  be  of 

the  greatest  interest  to  the  young  student  or  the  casual 

reader. 

I.  ETHICS. 

The  special  article  on  Philosophy,  XVIII.  791,  may  be 

made  the  starting  point  and  basis  for  these  studies.     This 

article,  leaving  controversial  details  as  far  as  possible   in 

the  background,   attempts  to  explain  generally 

the  essential  nature  of  philosophy,  and  to  indi- 
Ethics. 

cate  the  main  divisions  into  which,  as  a  matter 

of  historical  fact,  its  treatment  has  fallen.  After 
reading  the  first  and  second  divisions  of  this  article,  pp. 
791-793,  let  us  make  a  brief  study  of  the  lives  of  some  of 
the  famous  ancient  philosophers,  and  of  the  different 
schools  which  they  founded. 

But  first,  turn  to  the  article  on  ETHICS,  VIII.   574,  and 
read  the  introductory  paragraphs  defining  and  giving  a 


READINGS   IN   PHILOSOPHY.  149 

general  account  of  this  division  of  the  subject.     Read  next 
the  article  on  Thales,  the  first  philosopher  of  Greece,  and 
the  founder  of  Greek  astronomy  and  geometry,  XXIII. 
217.     Then  read  the  following  articles  in  their  order  : 
Pythagoras  (580-500  B.  c.)  and   Pythagoreanism,  XX. 

137- 

Heraclitus  of  Ephesus  (530-470  B.  c.),  XL  681. 

Democritus  (470-362  B.  C.),  VII.  59. 

The  Sophists,  XXII.  263  ;  The  Age  of  the  Sophists, 
VIII.  576. 

Socrates  (470-399  B.  c.),  XXII.  231  ;  Socratic 
Ancient         Schools,  VIII.  578. 
Philoso- 
phers Aristippus,  II.   506.     The   Cyrenaic  School, 

VI.  750. 

The  Cynics,  VI.  745,  VIII.  578;  Antisthenes,  II.  136; 
Diogenes,  VII.  245. 

Plato,  XIX.  194,  VIII.  579;  Platomsm,  I.  68;  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  VIII.  580;  Plato's  school,  VIII.  587;  the 
Academy,  I.  68. 

Aristotle,  II.  510;  Aristotle's  Ethics,  VIII.  581;  his 
logic,  XIV.  784 ;  his  metaphysics,  XVI.  79 ;  the  Peripa- 
tetics, XVIII.  545. 

Stoicism,  VIII.  583;  XXII.  561. 

Epicurus,  VIII.  472,  586. 

Marcus  Aurelius,  III.  86. 

Neoplatonism,  XVII.  332;  VIII.  587. 

Mysticism,  XVII.   128. 

Christian  ethics,  VIII.  588  ;  faith,  VIII.  589;  love  and 
purity,  VIII.  590. 

Alexandrian  school,  I.  498. 

St.  Augustine,  Christian  philosopher,  III.  75. 

St.  Ambrose,  I.  662. 

Scholastic  philosophy,  XXI.  117. 

Thomas  Aquinas,  II.  231. 


150  GUIDE   TO    THE   BRITANNICA. 

Albertus  Magnus,  I.  453. 
Abelard,  I.  34. 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  III.  601. 
Grotius,  XI.  217. 

Hobbes  and  his  "  Leviathan,"  XII.  31. 

The  Cambridge  Moralists,  VIII.  597. 

Henry  More,  XVI.  814. 

John  Locke,  XIV.  751. 
Shaftesbury,  XXL  731. 
Bernard  de  Mandeville,  XV.  472. 
David  Hume,  XII.  346. 
Adam  Smith,  XXII.   169. 
The  Intuitional  School,  VIII.  603. 
Dugald  Stewart,  XXII.  546. 
Utilitarianism,  VIII.  606;  sup.  3013. 
William  Paley,  XVIII.  181. 
Jeremy  Bentham,  III.  575. 
John  Stuart  Mill,  XVI.  307 ;  sup.  3014. 
Auguste  Comte,  VI.  229. 
Immanuel  Kant,  XIII.  844. 
Georg  Friedrich  Hegel,  XI.  612. 
Herbert  Spencer,  sup.  2764. 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  I.  729;  sup.  1195. 
Transcendentalism,  sup.  2935. 

Finally,  this  study  of  ethics  may  be  brought  to  a  close 
by  reading  the  concluding  paragraph  on  that  subject  in 
XVIII.  796. 

II.    METAPHYSIC. 

Metaphysic  is  "  the  science  which  deals  with  the  princi- 
ples which    are   presupposed  in  all  being  and 
Definition,     knowing,  though  they  are  brought  to  light  only 
by  philosophy."     According  to  Aristotle  it  in- 
cludes also  theology,  the  science  of  God.     It  is  treated  at 


READINGS   IN   PHILOSOPHY.  1 51 

considerable   length   by  Professor  Caird   of  Glasgow,  in 
XVI.  79-114. 

See  the  references  given  above  for  Aristotle, 
the  Sophists,  the  Socratic  school,  Neoplaton- 
ism,  Kant,  Locke,  etc.  Read  also  the  follow- 
ing articles  : 

Bacon,  III,  200;  XXIII.  244. 
Descartes,  VII.  115. 
Fichte,  IX.  134;  XX.  290. 
Spinoza,  XXII.  399. 
Animism,  II.  55. 

Realism,  XXI.  419  ;  sup.  2515  ;  see  also  Hamilton,  XI. 
417;  Schopenhauer,  XXI.  457;  and  Universals,  XXI. 
418  et  seq. 

Idealism,  sup.  1649. 
Altruism,  sup.  145. 
Analytic  Judgments,  I.  797. 
Association  of  Ideas,  II,  730. 
Antinomy,  II.  130. 

III.    PSYCHOLOGY. 

Psychology,  "  the   science    of   the    phenomena  of    the 

mind,"  is  the  subject  of  a  long  and  very  learned  article  by 

Professor  Ward,  of  Cambridge  University,  XX. 

Modem  37~^S-  It  may  be  read  by  sections  with  collat- 
Psychoiogy.  eral  references  to  the  articles  treating  of  the 
lives  and  works  of  the  men  who  have  done 
most  for  the  development  of  this  science. 

See  the  references  given  above  for  Locke,  Hume,  Mill, 
and  many- others. 

Read  also  the  following  articles : 

Berkeley,  III.  589. 

Bain,  I.  223  ;  III.  534. 

Herbart,  XI.  718. 


152  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Leibnitz,  XIV.  417. 

Herbert  Spencer,  II.  733. 

Sir  William  Hamilton,  XL  416. 

Association  of  ideas,  II.  730. 

Analytic  judgments,  I.  797. 

Belief,  III.  532. 

Imagination,  XX.  57. 

Feeling,  XX.  40,  66,  74. 

Abstraction,  I.  58. 

Absolute,  I.  57. 

Analysis  and  Synthesis,  I.  796. 

Attention,  III.  52,  etc. 

Psychology  in  relation  to  ethics,  VIII.  574;  in  relation 
to  logic,  XIV.  780;  to  metaphysics,  XVIII.  848;  to  evo- 
lution, VIII.  766;  to  religion,  XXIII.  274. 

Aristotle's  Psychology,  II.  522. 

Plato's,  XIX.  201. 

The  Stoics',  XXII.  565. 

Xenocrates's,  XXIV.  719. 

Hume's,  XII.  352. 

Cousin's,  VI.  525. 

Descartes',  VII.  126. 

Hegel's,  XL  620. 

Leibnitz's,  XIV.  422. 

Kant's,  XIII.  848. 

Lewes's,  XIV.  491. 

See  additional  references  to  this  subject  in  the  chapter 
entitled  The  Teacher,  in  this  GUIDE. 

IV.  LOGIC. 

Logic  is  the  systematic  study,  of  thought.  The  subject 
is  discussed  in  a  comprehensive  and  scholarly  article  by 
Professor  Adamson,  of  Manchester,  in  Volume  XIV.  of 


READINGS   IN   PHILOSOPHY.  153 

the  Britannica,  pages  780-803.  Hamilton's  contributions 
to  the  development  of  this  science  are  briefly 
noticed  in  XL  419. 

John  Stuart  Mill's  in  XVI.  312. 
Whately's  in  XXIV.  530. 
Hutcheson's  in  XII.  411. 
Condillac's  in  VI.  251. 
Gilbert  de  la  Porree's  in  X.  592. 
De  Morgan's  in  VII.  66. 
Hegel's  in  XL  619. 
Kant's  in  XIII.  852. 
Leibnitz's  in  XIV.  422. 
Lully's  in  XV.  64. 

The  various  terms  and  distinctive  expressions  used  in 
the  science  are  defined  and  discussed,  sometimes  sep- 
arately, each  under  its  own  head,  and  sometimes  in  a  com- 
prehensive treatise  upon  some  general  topic.  For  ex- 
ample : 

A  priora  and  a  posteriora,  II.  214. 

Reductio  ad  absurdum,  I.  ^a. 
Terms. 

Accident,  I.  83. 

Analogy,  I.  791. 
Reality,  XIV.  797,  798. 
Analysis,  I.  793,  796. 
Reason,  XIV.  780. 
Association  of  Ideas,  II.  730—734. 

See  the  references  given  above  for  Aristotle,  Kant,  Mill, 
Hegel,  etc. 

Read  also  the  following  articles  or  paragraphs : 

Lotze,  XV.  12, 

Ueberweg,  XXIII.  716. 

Condillac,  VI.  249. 

Ulrici,  XXIII.  721. 

Analytics,  XIV.  785. 


154  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Dialectics,  XIV.  786;  II.  516. 
Deduction,  I  797. 
Induction,  I.  797;  XIV.  785. 
Syllogism,  XIV.  789. 

V.   AESTHETICS. 

By  Aesthetics  is  generally  meant   the  science  of   the 

beautiful,  with   its   allied  conceptions  and  emotions.     A 

brief  survey  of  the  subject  and  the  various  prob- 

The  lems  which  its  study  involves  is  given  in  a 
Beautiful,  special  article  by  Professor  James  Sully  in  I. 
212—224.  After  reading  the  first  two  sections  of 
this  article,  see  the  references  given  above  for  Socrates, 
Plato,  Aristotle,  and  the  other  philosophers  mentioned 
under  the  head  of  Ethics.  Read  next  the  chapter  on  the 
history  of  aesthetic  systems,  pp.  214-224. 

This  course  of  reading  may  be  continued  with 
a  study  of  the  short  section  on  aesthetics,  XVIII.  795. 

Edmund  Burke's  work  on  the  sublime  and  beautiful  is 
briefly  noticed  in  IV.  540.  Jouffray's  theory  that  the 
beautiful  when  considered  apart  from  utility  is  valueless, 
is  referred  to  in  XIII.  194.  See  also  : 

The  nature  of  beauty,  IX.  194. 

Hutcheson  on  beauty,  XII.  411. 

Plato  on  beauty,  XIX.  201. 

VI.    SOCIOLOGY. 

Philosophers  will  agree  in  telling  us  that  for  the  content 
of  morality  we  must  refer,  in  great  part,  to  the  experience 
crystallized  in  laws  and  institutions,  and  to  the 
Human         unwritten   law    of    custom,    honor,    and    good 
Society.         breeding,  which  has  become  organic  in  the  so- 
ciety of  which  we  are  members.     Sociology,  or 
the   science  of  the    development    of   human    society,    is 


READINGS   IN   PHILOSOPHY.  155 

brought  therefore  within  the  scope  of  philosophy.  In  some 
of  its  aspects  it  may  indeed  be  regarded  as  a  branch  or 
subdivision  of  ethics.  Many  articles  in  the  Britannica  re- 
late, more  or  less  directly,  to  this  interesting  subject.  The 
following  may  be  studied  with  profit : 

Antiquity  of  Man,  II.  115. 

Development  of  Civilization,  II.  120. 

Development  of  Culture,  II.  121. 

Family  Development,  VIII.  618. 

Social  Development.  VIII.  619. 

Association  and  Evolution,  VIII.  607. 

Relations  of  sociology  to  economics,  XIX.  347. 

Sociological  conceptions  of  Comte,  VI.  235. 

Herbert  Spencer's  Social  Statics,  sup.  2766. 

Sociology  in  relation  to  Statistics,  XXII.  464. 

See  also  Sociological  Societies,  XXII.  226. 

In  connection  with  these  readings,  make  use  of  the  ref- 
erences to  ethnology  given  in  this  GUIDE. 


156  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

READINGS   FOR   BIBLE   STUDENTS. 

"  This  course  of  reading  Scripture  and  good  books  will  be  many  ways 
to  your  great  advantage." — Richard  Baxter,  1660. 

SUNDAY-SCHOOL  teachers,  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  theo- 
logians, and  all  students  of  the  Bible  will  find  the  Encyclo- 
pedia Britanmca  replete  with  information  con- 
Bible  cerning  all  subjects  connected  with  Bible 
History.  history,  biography,  or  geography.  There  is 
scarcely  a  proper  name  in  the  Old  Testament 
or  the  New  that  is  not  the  subject  of  a  special  article. 
The  History  of  the  Bible  itself,  with  that  of  the  critical 
problems  connected  with  the  books  which  compose  it,  is 
ably  and  fully  discussed  by  Professor  W.  Robertson 
Smith  in  a  fourteen-page  article,  III.  634-648.  Many  of 
the' books  composing  the  Bible  are  treated  separately  in  a 
similar  comprehensive  manner.  See  the  following : 

Pentateuch  and  Joshua,   XVIII.  505-514.     This  article 

embraces   a   complete   survey  of  the    first    six 

Books  of       books  of  the  Bible,  with  a  careful  discussion  of 

the  Bible,      the  Mosaic  law,  and  a  notice  of  the  most  recent 

criticisms  and   opinions.      In  connection   with 

this  article  it  will   be  interesting  to  read   what  is  said  of 

Philo's  "  Exposition   of  the  Mosaic   Law,"  XVIII.  763. 

The  book  of  Judges,  XIII.  763,  and  XIII.  400. 

The  book  of  Ruth,  XXI.  no. 

The  books  of  Samuel,  XXI.  252. 

The  First  and  Second  Books  of  Kings,  XIV.  83. 

Chronicles,  V.  706. 


READINGS   FOR   BIBLE   STUDENTS.  157 

The  Books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  VIII.  831. 

The  Book  of  Esther,  VIII.  560. 

The  Book  of  Job,  XIII.  697,  420. 

The  Book  of  Psalms,  XX.  29,  and  XII.  589. 

The  Book  of  Proverbs,  XIX.  879. 

The  Book  of  Ecclesiastes,  VII.  623. 

Song  of  Solomon,  V.  32. 

Prophet,  Prophets,  XIX.  814. 

Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  XIV.  240. 

The  Book  of  Daniel,  VI.  803. 

The  Old  Testament  Canon,  V.  I. 

The  Gospels,  X.  789. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  I.  123. 

Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  III.  642. 

Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  XL  602. 

Epistle  to  the  Romans,  XX.  727. 

Epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  VI.  399. 

Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  X.  19. 

Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  VIII.  458. 

Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  VI.  164. 

Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  XXIII.  297. 

Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus,  XVIII.  348. 

Epistle  to  Philemon,  XVIII.  741. 

Epistle  of  St.  James,  XIII.  553. 

Epistles  of  St.  Peter,  XVIII.  697. 

Epistles  of  St.  John,  XIII.  707. 

Epistle  of  St.  Jude,  XIII.  761. 

The  Book  of  Revelation,  XX.  496. 

The  New  Testament  Canon,  V.  7. 

Apocalyptic  Literature,  II.  174. 

The  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament,  II.  180;  the 
Book  of  Baruch,  III.  404;  Esdras  VIII.  541;  Judith, 
XIII.  765  ;  Maccabees,  XV.  131 ;  Tobit,  XXIII.  428. 

Israel,  XIII.  396. 


158  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Moses,  XVI.  860. 

David,  VI.  836. 

Miscella-          jews>  XHL  6; 
neous  Bible         ,...  ,      ~  TTT 

To  ics  Bible  Concordance,  VI.  240. 

Bible  Glosses,  X.  687. 

Versions  of  the  Bible  : 

English,  VIII.  381  ;  Wycliffe's,  XXIV.  710;  Tyndale's, 
XXIII.  675;  Coverdale's,  VI.  531;  Luther's, 
XV.  76  ;  Geneva,  VIII.  387  ;  the  Septuagint, 

Versions.        ^    ^ 

Inspiration  of  the  Bible,  XIII.  154. 

Circulation  of  the  Bible,  III.  634;  sup.  442-456. 

The  above-named  articles,  many  of  them  long  and  all 
the  work  of  Biblical  scholars  of  high  repute,  if  read  in  the 
order  named  will  constitute  a  complete  course  of  study  in 
Bible  history  and  criticism.  Theologians  and  advanced  stu- 
dents will  recognize  at  once  their  great  interest  and  value. 

The  Britannica  also  contains  innumerable  briefer  ar- 
ticles on  subjects  concerning  which  every  Bible 
Shorter  reader  desires  to  be  informed.  The  following 
Articles.  is  a  partial  list  of  such  articles  arranged  alpha- 
betically, according  to  the  volumes  in  which 
they  occur : 

Volume  I. — Aaron,  the  first  high  priest,  p.  3  ;  Abel,  the 
first  man  slain,  p.  33  ;  Abimelech,  the  title  of  certain  kings 
in  Palestine,  p.  49 ;  Abraham,  the  "  father  of  the  faith- 
ful," p.  52;  Absalom,  the  rebellious  son  of  David,  p.  56; 
Adam,  the  first  man,  p.  135  ;  Ahab,  the  wicked  king  of  Is- 
rael, p.  420;  Ahasuerus,  king  of  Persia,  p.  421;  Amos, 
one  of  the  prophets,  p.  747. 

Amalekites,  p.  651  ;  Ammonites,  p.  742,  and  Amorites, 
p.  747 — tribes  at  war  with  the  Israelites. 

Abana  and  Parphar,  p.  4 ;  Adullum,  p.  166,  and  Ai,  p. 
424 — rivers  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament. 


READINGS   FOR   BIBLE   STUDENTS.  159 

Volume  II. — Athaliah,  p.  827;  Asa,  p.  153;  Apocry- 
pha, p.  1 80;  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  p.  539;  Ararat,  p. 

309- 

Volume  1 77. — Balaam,  p.  258;  Baruch,  p.  404;  Bel- 
shazzar,  p.  553. 

Volume  IV. — Cain,  p.  642  ;  Canaanites,  p.  763  ;  Cana  of 
Galilee,  p.  762. 

Volume  V. — Canticles,  p.  32  ;  Chronicles,  p.  706. 

Volume  VI. — Daniel,  p.  803  ;  David,  p.  836. 

Volume  VII. — Deluge,  p.  54;  Decalogue,  p.  15. 

Volume  VIII. — Eli,  p.  133  ;  Elijah,  p.  134  ;  Elisha,  p.  140 ; 
Emmaus,  p.  177  ;  Enoch,  p.  449;  Esau,  p.  533  ;  Esdras, 
p.  541 ;  Esther,  p.  560  ;  Eve,  p.  733  ;  Ezekiel,  p.  828. 

Volume  X. — Galilee,  p.  27  ;  Gath,  p.  108  ;  Gilead,  p.  594 ; 
Goshen,  p.  788 ;  Gideon,  p.  588  ;  Gog,  p.  738 ;  Bible 
Glosses,  p.  687 ;  the  Gospels,  p.  789. 

Volume  XII. —  Hittites,  p.  25  ;  Hosea,  p.  295. 

Volume  XIII. — Isaiah,  p.  377  ;  Israel,  p.  396  ;  Jeremiah, 
p.  626  ;  Jesus  Christ,  p.  656;  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  p.  672  ; 
Job,  p.  697. 

Volume  XIV. — Lamech,  p.  238. 

Volume  XV. — Manna,  p.  493  ;  Mark,  p.  551  ;  Mary,  p. 
589 ;  Matthew,  p.  633. 

Volume  XVI. — Messiah,  p.  53;  Micah,  p.  224  ;  Michael, 
p.  226;  Midian,  p.  284;  Moab,  p.  533;  Moloch,  p.  695; 
Moses,  p.  860. 

Volume  XVII. — Nahum,  p.  165  ;  Naphtali,  p.  174;  Na- 
thanael,  p.  242;  Nehemiah,  p.  320;  Nimrod,  p.  511  ;  Nebu- 
chadnezar,  p.  309. 

Volume  XVIII. — Paul,  p.  415  ;  Peter,  p.  693  ;  Pharaoh, 
p.  730  ;  Philemon,  p.  741  ;  Philip,  p.  742  ;  Philistines,  p.  755. 

Volume  XX. — The  land  of  Rameses,  p.  265. 

Volume  XXI. — Sabbath,  p.  124;  Samaria,  p.  243;  Sa- 
maritans, p.  244;  Samuel,  p.  252  ;  Samson,  p.  252. 


l6o  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Volume  XXII. — Simeon,  p.  77 ;  Simon  Magus,  p.  78  ; 
Sinai,  p.  88  ;  Solomon,  p.  251  ;  Synagogue,  p.  811  ;  Susa, 
p.  722. 

Volume  XXIII. — Thomas,  p.  308  ;  Timothy,  p.  399  ; 
Titus,  p.  420;  Tobit,  p.  427. 

Of  the  articles  which  relate  to  the  geography  of  the 
Bible,  the  following  are  a  few  of  the  most  important : 

Sinai,  celebrated  as  the  place  where  Moses  received  the 
law,  XXII.  88. 

Palestine,  the  "  Promised  Land,"  XVIII.  170,  and  XIII. 
400. 

Jerusalem,  the  holy  city,  XIII.  636. 

Dead  Sea,  together  with  an  account  of  the  two  cities, 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  which  are  said  to  have 

Bible         occupied  its  site,  VII.  i. 

Geography.        Hebron,  the    ancient  capital  of    Judea,   XL 
608. 

Bethlehem,  the  city  of  David,  III.  617. 

Bethany,  the  "town  of  Mary  and  Martha,"  III.  617. 

Beer-sheba,  the  most  southern  town  of  Palestine,  III. 
504. 

Samaria,  XXL  243. 

Shechem,  XXI.  783. 

Nazareth,  the  town  where  Jesus  lived,  XVII.  302. 

Gennesaret,  otherwise  called  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  X.  29. 

Gethsemane,  sup.  1390. 

Capernaum,  V.  54. 

Joppa,  XIII.  746. 

Antioch,  II.  130. 

Damascus,  the  oldest  city  in  the  world,  VI.  790. 

The  journeyings  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  to  the 
Promised  Land  may  be  traced  by  reading  the  following 


READINGS   FOR   BIBLE   STUDENTS.  l6l 

references  in  their  order :  Starting  from  Rameses  in  Egypt, 
XX.  265,  they  fled  to  the  Red  Sea,  XIII.  399.  Here 
Pharaoh  and  his  host  were  overthrown  and 
Journey  drowned,  but  the  Israelites,  having  crossed  in 
E  t  safety,  pursued  their  journey  through  the  wil- 
derness. For  three  days  they  had  no  water  to 
drink,  and  arriving  at  last  at  Marah,  XIV.  767,  they  found 
that  the  water  in  the  springs  there  was  bitter.  This  water 
was  miraculously  made  sweet,  and  they  continued  their 
journey,  finally  reaching  Sinai,  XXII.  88,  where  the  law 
was  delivered  to  Moses.  From  Sinai  they  passed  by  va- 
rious stations  to  Kadesh-Barnea,  XXII.  821,  and  from  that 
place  sent  out  twelve  spies  to  view  the  Promised  Land. 
Being  afraid  to  enter  the  Promised  Land,  they  then  turned 
back  into  the  wilderness  where  they  wandered  for  forty 
years.  At  Mount  Hor,  XII.  159,  Aaron  died.  While  pass- 
ing around  Edom,  XII.  699,  they  were  attacked  by  fiery 
serpents.  Arriving  at  last  on  the  plains  of  Moab,  XVI.  533, 
the  Israelite  army  was  reviewed  and  the  law  was  confirmed 
by  Moses.  Moses  viewed  the  Promised  Land  from  the 
top  of  Mount  Pisgah  and  died  there.  After  this  the  peo- 
ple under  Joshua  crossed  the  Jordan,  XIII.  746,  encamped 
a  short  time  at  Gilgal,  X.  596,  and  then  marched  against 
Jericho,  XIII.  629,  and  Ai,  I.  424.  At  Shechem,  XXI. 
783,  they  again  encamped,  and  there  the  cursings  were 
read  from  Mount  Ebal,  X.  444,  and  the  blessings  from 
Mount  Gerizim,  XXI.  244.  Returning  to  Gilgal,  a  treaty 
was  made  with  the  people  of  Gibeon,  X.  583.  At  Merom, 
XIII.  746,  the  Northern  Canaanites  were  signally  defeated  ; 
and  at  Shiloh,  XXI.  803,  the  twelve  tribes  were  assigned 
to  their  respective  possessions. 

In  much  the  same  way  we  may  follow  the  Apostle  Paul 
in  his  voyage  to  Rome.     He  sets  sail  from  Caesarea,  IV. 
639 ;    touches  at   Sidon,  XXII.  35  ;    thence   proceeds   to 
ii 


l62  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Cyprus,  VI.  747,  and  to  Myra,  XV.  93,  where  he  is  tran- 
shipped to  a  corn  vessel  which  coasts  along  the  shore  of 
Asia  Minor  to  Cnidus,  V.  44.     Being  caught  by 
p'  the  wind,  the  vessel  is  driven  to  Crete,  VI.  569, 

Rome  an<^  f°H°ws  the  southern  coast  of  that  island  to 
Fair  Haven,  VI.  570.  Sailing  thence  to  find  a 
secure  harbor  for  the  winter,  the  vessel  encounters  the 
wind  Eurokylon,  XV.  340,  and  sup.  1220;  and,  under  shel- 
ter of  the  island  Clauda,  VI.  570,  the  sailors  prepare  for 
the  storm  by  striking  sail  and  turning  the  vessel's  head  to 
the  wind.  For  fourteen  days  they  are  driven  helpless 
across  the  sea,  and  are  finally  thrown  upon  the  shore  of 
Melita,  XV.  840,  escaping  only  with  their  lives.  After 
three  months,  Paul  sets  sail  in  an  Alexandrian  corn  ship, 
stops  at  Syracuse,  XXII.  813,  for  three  days;  then,  mak- 
ing circuit,  passes  Rhegium,  XX.  341,  and  the  next  day 
lands  at  Puteoli,  XVII,  188,  where  he  rests  a  full  week. 
Then  he  proceeds  by  the  Appian  Way,  II.  211,  to  the  city 
of  Rome,  XX.  807. 

It  is  safe  to  say,  in  conclusion,  that  the  earnest  student 
of  the  Bible  will  find  in  the  Britannica  an  answer  to  al- 
most every  question  concerning  biblical  subjects  that  may 
be  asked.  From  no  other  single  work  will  he  be  able  to 
obtain  a  larger  amount  of  useful  information  at  so  little 
expenditure  of  time  and  labor.  The  Britannica  is,  in 
short,  the  great  authority  to  which  readers  and  students 
of  every  denomination  or  creed  may  turn  with  full  confi- 
dence in  its  correctness  and  impartiality.  See  the  chapter 
entitled  The  Preacher  and  Theologian,  of  this  GUIDE. 


READINGS   IN   MYTHOLOGY,   ETC.  163 


CHAPTER  XX. 

READINGS    IN    MYTHOLOGY,    LEGENDS,   TRADITIONS,   AND 
FOLK   LORE. 

"  Books  are  our  household  gods." — January  Searle. 
"Gods  and  goddesses,  all  the  whole  synod  of  them!" — Antony  and 
Cleopatra. 

I.   MYTHOLOGY. 

MYTHOLOGY  is  the  science  which  examines  the  myths 
of  cosmogony  and  of  gods  and  heroes.     A  very  scholarly 
exposition  of  this  science  is  given  by  Andrew 
Lang  in  Volume   XVII.,  pp.   135-154,  of  the 
Britannica.     Students,   however,   who  are  not 
already  somewhat  familiar  with  the  subject  will 
prefer  to  read  some  of  the  shorter  articles  first ;  they  will 
afterward  be  able  to  take  up  this  entertaining  and  com- 
prehensive disquisition,  and  read  it  with  appreciation  and 
delight.     The  following  list  includes  a  number  of  interest- 
ing and  valuable  articles,  arranged  for  the  most  part  in 
alphabetical  order : 

Myths  of  the  creation,  VI.  446,  and  XVII.  156.      Read 
also  the  chapter  on  cosmogonies,  I.  460. 
Myths  of  the  gods  : 
Apollo,  II.  185. 

Athena  (Minerva),  II.  830;  XVI.  437. 
Diana  (Artemis),  II.  643  ;  VII.  167. 

RoTan.  Hebe>  XL  490. 

Hephaestus  (Vulcan),  XL  679. 
Juno,  XIII.  778  (Hera),  XL  679. 


164  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Jupiter,  XIII.  779. 

Mars,  XV.  569,  (Ares),  II.  484. 

Marsyas,  XV.  575. 

Mercury  (Hermes),  XI.  749;  XVI.  530. 

Nemesis,  XVII.  331. 

Neptune  (Poseidon),  XVII.  345;  XIX.  558. 

Saturn,  XXL  320. 

Venus  (Aphrodite),  II.  171. 

Vesta,  XXIV.  193. 

Zeus  (Jupiter),  XXIV.  782. 

The  Aesir,  I.  209. 

Odin,  II.  68;  XVII.  156. 

Frey,  I.  210. 
Northern.       _    , J*       TTT 

Balder,  III.  275. 

Niord,  I.  210. 
Bragi,  I.  211. 
Thor,  XVII.  156. 
Freya,  IX.  777. 
Loki,  XVII.  474. 
Heimdal,  I.  211,  etc. 
Asgard,  II.  679. 

Bel,  III.  175. 

Ashtoreth,  II.  735. 
Other         Astarte,  II.  735. 
Gods.         Merodach,  XXIII.  237. 

Ammon,  I.  740. 
Anubis,  II.  146. 
Bubastis,  IV.  408. 
Baal,  III.  175. 
Moloch,  XVI.  695. 
Ahriman,  I.  424. 
Dagon,  VI.  761. 


READINGS   IN   MYTHOLOGY,   ETC.  165 

Anoukis,  II.  90. 
Athor,  III.  13. 
Buto,  IV.  590. 

For  further  references,  see    the  chapter  entitled    The 
Preacher  and  Theologian,  in  this  GUIDE. 

II.    LEGENDS. 

I.  Closely  allied  to  the  myths  of  the  gods — in  fact,  in- 
separable from  them — are  the  legends  of  the  ancient  he- 
roes. All  are  related  in  the  Britannica,  with  now 
Old  Greek  and  then  a  pertinent  inquiry  respecting  their 
Stories.  origin,  or  a  brief  discussion  concerning  their 
interpretation.  Here  you  may  find  the  story 
of  Achilles,  whose  "vengeful  wrath  brought  woes  number- 
less upon  the  Greeks,"  I.  94 ;  of  Acis  and  his  love  for  the 
nymph  Galatea,  I.  98 ;  of  Actaeon  hunted  by  his  own 
hounds,  I.  129;  of  Adonis  beloved  by  Venus,  I.  163;  of 
Adrastus  and  the  war  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  I.  164 ; 
of  ^Eacus,  famed  for  his  integrity  and  piety,  I.  179;  of 
yEgeus,  the  king  of  Athens,  and  of  ^Egina,  the  river- 
nymph,  I.  180;  of  ^Lgis,  the  buckler  of  Jupiter,  I.  181  ; 
of  ^Egisthus,  the  traitor,  I.  181,  and  his  betrayal  of  Aga- 
memnon, "  king  of  men,"  I.  273  ;  of  ^Eneas  and  his  flight 
from  Troy,  I.  182  ;  of  Ajax  Telamon  and  AjaxOileus  and 
their  bold  exploits,  I.  432 ;  of  fair  Alcestis  giving  herself 
up  to  death  to  save  the  life  of  her  husband,  I.  459  ;  of 
Alcinous  and  his  Phaeacian  people,  I.  468  ;  of  Alpheus,  the 
river-god,  I.  615,  and  his  adventure  with  the  nymph  Are- 
thusa,  II.  485  ;  of  the  Amazonian  women,  I.  655,  brave 
warriors  of  the  Colchian  shore ;  of  Amphiaraus,  I.  749, 
whose  prophetic  power  did  not  save  him  from  an  early 
death  ;  of  Amphion,  I.  774,  the  sound  of  whose  lyre  caused 
stones  to  move  and  form  themselves  into  the  walls  of 
Thebes ;  of  Amymone  and  the  satyr,  I.  782. 


l66  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

This  takes  us  only  through  the  first  volume.  Of  the 
numerous  classical  legends  narrated  in  the  remaining  vol- 
umes, it  is  unnecessary  to  name  all.  Any  course  of  read- 
ing on  this  subject,  however,  ought  to  include  the  following : 

Anchises,  the  father  of  ^Eneas,  II.  3. 

Andromache,  the  wife  of  Trojan  Hector,  II. 

Classical 
Legends.         22' 

Andromeda,  saved  by  Perseus  from  the  jaws 

of  a  sea-monster,  II.  22. 

Antaeus,  giant  and  wrestler,  overcome  by  Hercules,  II. 
100. 

Antigone,  the  heroine  of  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
old  Greek  tragedies,  II.  127. 

The  Argonauts  and  their  famous  voyage  in  search  of 
the  Golden  Fleece,  II.  497. 

Ariadne,  the  fair  maiden  of  Crete,  II.  501. 

Arion,  the  Greek  bard  and  player  on  the  cithara,  II.  502. 

Atalanta,  the  swift-footed  huntress  of  Arcadia,  II.  826. 

Atreus,  the  father  of  Agamemnon,  III.  50. 

Atys,  the  beautiful  shepherd  of  Phrygia,  III.  65. 

The  autochthones,  aborigines  of  Greece,  III,  141. 

Cadmus,  the  inventor  of  letters,  IV.  629. 

Calchas,  the  wisest  of  soothsayers,  IV.  653. 

Calliope,  the  Muse  of  epic  poetry,  IV.  709. 

The  centaurs,  or  "  bull-killers,"  fabled  as  creatures  half 
man  and  half  horse,  V.  340. 

Cerberus,  the  three-headed  dog  that  guards  the  gates  of 
Hades,  V.  345. 

Cupid  and  Psyche,  VI.  708. 

The  Cyclopes,  a  lawless  race  of  one-eyed  monsters,  VI 

744- 

Daedalus,  the  most  famous  artisan  of  prehistoric  times, 
VI.  760. 

Daphne,  beloved  by  Apollo,  VI.  821. 


READINGS   IN   MYTHOLOGY,    ETC.  1 67 

Danae,  the  mother  of  Perseus,  VI.  797. 

Danau's  and  his  fifty  daughters,  VI.  797. 

Deucalion,  the  Noah  of  the  Greeks,  VII.  134. 

Dodona  and  its  famous  oaks,  VII.  322. 

Echo  and  her  love  for  Narcissus,  VII.  640. 

Elysium,  or  the  abode  of  the  blessed,  VIII.  156. 

Endymion,  and  his  perpetual  sleep,  VIII.  204. 

The  Epigoni,  sons  of  the  seven  heroes  who  perished  at 
Thebes,  VIII.  477- 

The  Erinyes,  or  Furies,  VIII.  524. 

The  Fauns,  IX.  53. 

Ganymede,  the  cup-bearer  of  Zeus,  X.  72. 

The  Giants,  X.  571. 

Glaucus,  the  fisherman  who  became  a  god,  X.  676. 

The  Gorgons,  X.  784. 

The  Graces,  XI.  26. 

The  Harpies,  XL  490. 

Hercules,  the  greatest  of  the  heroes,  XL  725. 

Hero  and  Leander,  XL  754. 

The  Hesperides,  daughters  of  the  West,  XL  778. 

Iphigenia,  XIII.  211. 

Jason,  the  leader  of  the  Argonauts,  XIII.  596. 

Hyacinthus,  the  friend  of  Apollo,  XII.  420. 

Laocoon,  the  unfortunate  Trojan,  crushed  by  serpents, 
XIV.  292. 

The  Lapithae,  ancient  race  of  Thessaly,  XIV.  300. 

Linus,  who  taught  Hercules  music,  XIV.  678. 

Medea,  the  enchantress,  XV.  776. 

Medusa,  the  Gorgon,  X.  785. 

Midas  arid  the  "golden  touch,"  XVI.  278. 

Milo,  the  wrestler,  XVI.  323. 

Minos  and  the  Labyrinth  of  Crete,  XVI.  478. 

The  Nymphs,  XVIII.  688. 

Nestor,  oldest  of  Grecian  heroes  before  Troy,  XVII.  354. 


168  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Orpheus,  the  sweetest  of  all  musicians,  XVIII.  51. 
Odysseus,  or  Ulysses,  XVII.  729. 

Pegasus,  the  winged  horse  of  the  Muses,  XVIII.  468. 
Pelias,  king  of  lolcos  by  the  sea,  XVIII.  474. 
Phaethon,  son  of  Helios,  XVIII.  727. 
Theseus,  the  great  Athenian  hero,  XXIII.  294. 
Romulus,  the  mythical  founder  of  Rome,  XX^  840. 
The  Trojan  war,  XXIII.  584. 

2.  Of  old   English  legends  intimately  associated  with 
much  that  is  best  in  our  literature,  there  are  several  with 

which  every  student  should  be  familiar.    Among 
English        these  are  the  following  : 
Legends.  King  Arthur  and  his  Knights  of  the  Round 

Table,  II.  649. 

Lancelot  of  the  Lake,  XX.  644. 
Merlin,  the  wizard,  XX.  645. 
Guy  of  Warwick,  XI.  341. 
Sir  Bevis  of  Hampton,  XX.  653. 
Godiva,  the  fair  lady  of  Coventry,  VI.  530. 
Fair  Rosamond,  XX.  848. 
Whittington  and  his  Cat,  XXIV.  556. 

3.  Of  Christian  legends,  some  of  the  most  interesting  are: 

Saint  Cecilia,  V.  284. 
Christian  Saint  Christopher,  V.  704. 

Legends.  The  Holy  Grail,  XL  34. 

Saint  Nicholas,  XVII.  482. 
Saint  Denis,  VII.  79. 
Saint  Veronica,  XXIV.  174. 
Seven  Sleepers  of  Ephesus,  XXI.  697. 

4.  Of  other  famous  legends  the  number  is  too  great  for 
anything  like  a  complete  list  to  be  given.     Among  those 


READINGS   IN   MYTHOLOGY,    ETC.  169 

referred  to  or  narrated  in   the  Britannica  the  following 

may  be  mentioned  : 

Miscella-  Adam's  Peak  in  Ceylon,  I.  140. 

neous.  The  Tower  of  Babel,  III.  178. 

The  story  of  Lohengrin,  XXIV.  314. 

Roland,  the  great  French  hero,  XX.  626. 

The  Cid,  famous  in  Spanish  story,  V.  773, 

Ogier,  the  Dane,  XX.  652. 

Prester  John,  King  of  Abyssinia,  I.  65  ;  XIX.  714. 

The  legend  of  Dr.  Faustus,  IX.  54. 

Legends  of  Atlantis.  III.  27. 

William  Tell,  XXIII.  155. 

The  Beast  Epic  of  Reineke  Vos,  VIII.  838. 

The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  XI.  409. 

The  Nibelungen  Lied,  XVII.  474. 

The  legends  peculiar  to  different  countries  are  also  no- 
ticed in  their  appropriate  places,  as  : 

Legends  of  Afghanistan,  I.  238. 

Legends  of  Arabia,  II.  255. 

Legends  of  Central  America,  I.  703,  etc. 

5.  Fairy  Stories. — For  special  article,  see  VIII.  854.    See 
also  the  following  sections,  paragraphs,  and  short  articles : 

Fairies,  II.  203. 

Brownies,  II.  204. 

Fairies  in  Celtic  literature,  V.  325. 

Morgan,  the  Fay,  V.  325. 

Oberon,  XVII.  704. 

6.  Fables. — See  special  article,  VIII.  837. 
Sanscrit  fables,  XXI.  287. 

^sop,  the  Greek  fabulist,  I.  212. 

La  Fontaine,  the  French  writer  of  fables,  XIV.  204. 

Kriloff,  the  Russian  collector  of  fables,  XIV.  148. 


I/O  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

READINGS   IN  THE   STUDY   OF   THE   SUPERNATURAL. 

"  To  make  modern  and  familiar,  things  supernatural  and  causeless." 

—All's  Well  that  Ends  Well. 

IN  this  chapter  it  is  proposed  to  point  out  to  the  reader 
a  few  of    the  most  interesting  articles  in  the 
Occult         Britannica  relating  to  supernatural  phenomena, 
Sciences.       the  occult    sciences,  magic,  mystery,   supersti- 
tion, etc.     No  attempt  will  be  made  towards  a 
classification  or  logical  arrangement  of  the  subjects,  nor 
is  it  possible  to  present  anything  approaching  to  a  com- 
plete list  of  the  articles  and  parts  of  articles  which  relate 
directly  or  indirectly  to  the  supernatural.     But  it  is  be- 
lieved that  every  student  will  find  in  these  readings  matter 
that  will  afford  entertainment,  and  sometimes  instruction. 
Before  the  era  of  modern   science,  the  belief  in  the  su- 
pernatural held  a  much  larger  place  in  the  estimation  of 
mankind  than  it  is  possible  for  it  to  hold  again.    Alchemy, 
astrology,  and  magic  reigned  undisputed,  and  all  knowledge 
of  whatsoever  kind  was  tinctured  with  superstition.      Let 
us  begin  our  readings,  therefore,  with  selections  from  arti- 
cles relating  to  these  defunct  sciences : 

I.  Alchemy  has  been  very  aptly  described  as  "  the 
sickly  but  imaginative  infancy  through  which 
modern  chemistry  had  to  pass  before  it  at- 
tained its  majority."  See  the  very  interesting 
article  on  this  subject,  I.  459-467.  Read  also 
the  following  articles  and  selections: 


STUDY   OF  THE   SUPERNATURAL.  1 71 

Paracelsus,  XVIII.  234. 
Jakob  Bohme  III.  852. 
Hermes  Trismegistus,  XL  750. 
Alexander  of  Aphrodisias,  I.  486. 
Roger  Bacon,  III.  218;   I.  186. 
Albertus  Magnus,  I.  453. 
Cornelius  Agrippa,  I.  418. 
Raymond  Lully,  XV.  63. 
Arnold  of  Villeneuve,  II.  620. 
The  Rosicrucians,  XX.  852. 
Alembic,  I.  477. 

2.  Astrology  was  the  forerunner  of  the  modern  science 
of  astronomy,  and,  like  alchemy,  was  not  altogether  un- 
productive of  good  results.     For  a  general  history  of  this 

interesting   subject,    see  the    special  article    in 

volume  II.  739-743.     Also,  consult  the   follow- 
Astrology.      .  '?<   '^ 

ing  short  articles : 

Horoscope,  XV.  206. 
Zodiac,  XXIV.  791  ;  VII.  550. 
William  Lilly,  XIV.  642. 
Nostradamus,  XVII.  596. 
Robert  Fludd,  IX.  349. 
John  Dee,  VII.  22. 
Michael  Scott,  XXL  470. 
Girolamo  Cardan,  V.  90;  II.  742. 
Napier's  belief  in  Astrology,  XVII.  183. 
Astrology  among  the  Parsees,  XVIII.  325. 

3.  Necromancy :    An  important  article  on  magic,  its  his- 

tory and  influence,  may  be  found  in  XV.  199. 
Magic.  Magic  among  Prehistoric  Nations,  VIII.  623. 

Egyptian  Magic,  XV.  201. 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Magic,  XV.  201. 


1/2  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Greek  and  Roman  Magic,  XV.  202. 

Magic  among  Asiatic  Nations,  XV.  203. 

The  Rosicrucians,  XX.  852. 

Magic  in  Christendom,  XV.  204. 

Necromancy  in  England,  VII.  22. 

Divination,    or   the  art  of  discovering  secret  or    future 

things  by  preternatural  means,  VII.  293. 
Supersti-  Augury,  or  the  art    of    discovering   through 

Beliefs         natural  signs  the  will  of  the  gods,  III.  72. 

Palmistry,  the  art  of  divining  personal  history 
from  the  lines  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  sup.  2285. 

Ordeal,  or  the  mediaeval  method  of  discovering  the  will 
of  God,  XVII.  820. 

Dreams  and  their  interpretation,  VII.  452,  293. 
Lycanthropy,  or  the  metamorphosis  of  men  into  wolves, 
XV.  89. 

The  mystical  arrangement    of   letters,  called 

Mysticism.       A  ,  ,    ,          T 

Abracadabra,  I.  52. 

The  mystical  word  Abraxas,  I.  56. 
The  mystical  ornament  or  charm,  Amulet,  I.  780. 
The  mystical  science,  Kabbalah,  XIII.  810. 

4.  Demonology,   or  the    influence    of    spiritual   beings 
upon  the  affairs  of  men,  VII.  60. 

Sorcery,  or  familiar  intercourse  with  demons,  VII.  63. 
Witchcraft,  XXIV.  619.     (A  history  of  the 

laws  and  methods   by   which   different  nations 
Witchcraft.    , 

have    attempted    to    suppress    this    supposed 

crime.) 

Exorcism,  or  the  means  by  which    evil  spirits   are  ex- 
pelled, VIII.  806. 

Evil         Devil,  VII.  136. 

Ahriman  I.  424;   XVII.  858;  XXIII.  238. 

Beelzebub,  III.  503. 


STUDY  OF  THE  SUPERNATURAL.  173 

Asmodeus.  II.  714. 
Mephistopheles,  XVI.  29. 

Faust,  the  sorcerer  of  mediaeval  legend,  XI.  54;  X.  539. 
Merlin,  the  wizard  of  Britain,  XX.  645. 
Apollonius  of  Tyana,  philosopher  and  magician,  II.  188. 
Reginald  Scot,  English  writer  on  witchcraft,  XXI.  470. 
Cotton  Mather,  the  New  England  opponent  of  witch- 
craft, XV.  63 1. 

5.  The  history  of  the  belief  in  supernatural  beings  and 
in  supernatural  influences  maybe  further  illustrated  by  ref- 
erence to  the  following  articles: 

Angels,  II.  26;  II.   183. 

Azrael>  SUP>  3°5' 
nfluence..     Raphael,  XX.  274. 
Gabriel,  X.  30. 

Michael,  XVI.  226. 

Apparitions,  II.  202. 

Astral  Spirits,  sup.  273. 

Ghosts,  II.  205  ;  XV.  199. 

Spiritualism,  II.  207  ;  XXII.  404  ;  the  Fox  sisters,  sup. 
1322;  Daniel  D.  Home,  sup.  1601  ;  Robert  Dale  Owen, 
sup.  2271. 

Fetichism,  II.  45. 

Totemism,  XXIII,  467. 

Prophecy,  XIX.  814. 

Inspiration,  XIII.   154;  XIX.   197. 

Second  Sight,  II.  202. 

Hypnotism,   II.  505. 

Mesmerism,  XV.  277. 

Augury,  III.  72. 

Divination,  VII.  293. 

Bibliomancy,  sup.  457. 

Divination  by  Cup,  sup.  965. 


1/4  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

The  Sibyllines,  XXII.  13;  XI.  144.  See  also  Augurs, 
III.  72;  Oracles,  XVII.  808;  XIX.  91. 

Apotheosis,! I.  199.  See  also  Metempsychosis,  XVI.  106. 

6.  The  popular  belief  in  imaginary    creatures,    as    set 

forth  in  very  many  of  the  classical  legends,  in 

Imaginary     the  romances  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  the 

Beings.        fairy  tales  and  folk-lore  of  almost  every  nation 

in  the  world,  is  the  subject  of  numerous  articles. 

The  following  are  especially  noticeable  : 

Genii,  sup.   1379. 

Manes,  XV.  477. 

Penates,  XVIII.  488. 

Nymphs,  XVII.  688. 

Dryads,  VII.  487. 

Fauns,  IX.   53. 

Chimaera,  V.  626. 

Harpies,  XI.  490. 

Mermaids  and  mermen,  XVI.  89. 

Griffin,  XL   195. 

Dragon,  VII.  385. 

Were  wolves,  XV.  89. 

Fairies,  VIII.  854. 

Oberon  and  Titania,  XVII.  704. 

Morgana,  V.  325. 

Elves,  VIII.  855. 

See  the  references  to  astrology  in  Readings  in  Astron- 
omy, in  this  GUIDE ;  also  the  references  to  alchemy  in  the 
chapter  entitled  The  Chemist. 


THE   DESULTORY   READER'S   COURSE.  175 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE   DESULTORY   READER'S   COURSE. 

"  Read  what  amuses  you  and  pleases  you.  "-  Robert  Lowe. 
"  Adjust  your  proposed  amount  of  reading  to  your  time  and  inclina- 
tion."— Dr.  l^homas  Arnold. 

To  the  person  who  takes  pleasure  (and  who  does  not  ?) 
in  browsing  among  the  good  things  in  books,  without  un- 
dertaking to  read  systematically,  the  Encyclo- 

ea  m&       p&dia  Britannica  offers  advantages  which  can 
for 
Pleasure        ^e  derived  from   no   other  publication.     Here 

may  be  found  all  kinds  of  literary  nuggets — 
readings  on  all  manner  of  subjects — short  articles,  long 
articles — anything  and  everything  to  suit  the  demands 
ot  the  hour.  You  need  not  attempt  to  follow  any  spe- 
cial course  of  reading — only  read  that  which  pleases  you, 
and  you  may  be  sure  that,  whatever  you  may  select  from 
the  Britannica,  you  cannot  fail  to  be  improved  thereby. 
If  your  time  is  limited,  choose  something  that  is  brief  and 
light ;  if  you  are  in  a  studious  mood,  take  up  a  subject  that 
will  make  you  think,  and  that  will  be  to  your  mind  what 
brisk  exercise  is  to  your  body.  Among  the  thousands  of 
articles  with  which  you  may  thus  occupy  your  spare  mo- 
ments, the  following  are  mentioned  merely  as  examples  : 

I.   CURIOUS   INVENTIONS,  ETC. 
The  Automaton,  III.  142. 
Inventions,    xhe  magic  lantern  (fully  illustrated),  XV.  21 1. 

The  guillotine,  XI.  263. 
Tunneling,  XXIII.  622  (illustrated). 
Wax  figures,  XXIV.  460. 
Horn-books,  XII.  170. 


176  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Perfumery,  XVIII.  525. 
Balloons,  I.  187. 
Fire  engines,  IX.  235. 
Hydraulic  Clock,  V.  826. 
Fire  works,  XX.  134. 
Flying  machines,  I.  185. 

2.   NATURAL  CURIOSITIES,  SCENERY,    ETC. 

The  Luray  cavern,  XV.  67. 

The  Mammoth  cave,  XV.  448. 

Niagara  Falls,  XVII.  472. 

Whirlpools,  XXIV.  540. 
Whirlwinds  and  tornadoes,  XVI.  129. 
Geysers,  X.  557. 
Glaciers,  X.  626. 
Natural  gas,  sup.  2140. 
Artesian  Wells,  sup.  250. 
Giant's  causeway,  X.  572. 
Tides,  XXIII.  353. 

Ill     STRANGE  ANIMALS  AND   PLANTS. 
Prehistoric  monsters,  XII.  695. 
The  ichneumon,  XII.  629. 
The  dodo,  VII.  321. 
The  honey  guide,  XII.  139. 
The  sloth,  XXII.  161. 
Sea-serpents,  XXI.  608. 
Mermaids,  XV.  89. 
Dragons,  VII.  385. 
Chimera,  V.  626. 

Harpies,  XI.  490. 
Trees.  Baobab  Tree,  I.  268. 

Sacred  Fig.  IX.  154. 
Upas  Tree,  XXIII.  859. 
Orchids,  XVII.  816. 


THE   DESULTORY   READER'S   COURSE.  177 

IV.   CURIOUS    CUSTOMS,    ETC. 

Deodands,  VII.  727. 

Ordeal  of  Fire  and  of  Battle,  XVII.  820. 

April  Fool  Day,  II.  214. 

Curious  May  Day  in  Old  England,  XV.  647. 

Customs.          The  Morris  Dance,  XVI.  846. 

Caste,  V.  1 86. 
Clans,  V.  799. 
Saturnalia,  XXI.  321. 
The  Nile  Festival,  VII.  727. 
Exorcism,  VIII.  806. 

Fehmic  Court  (a  secret  tribunal  in  Germany,  twelfth  to 
sixteenth  century),  IX.  63. 
Pillory,  XIX.  95. 

V.    DEATH   AND   BURIAL. 

Funeral  rites,  IX.  824. 
Burial,  IV.  537. 
Embalming,  VIII,  158. 
Mummies,  XVII.  20. 
Wakes,  sup.  3070. 
Cremation,  sup.  940,  VI.  565. 
National  cemeteries,  sup.  732. 
Tombs,  sup.  2923. 
Mausoleum,  XI.  383. 
Suttee,  XXII.  727. 

VI.   HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY. 

History  of  Flags,  IX.  276. 

Guilds,  XI.  259-262. 

The  Man  of  the  Iron  Mask,  XIII.  360. 

Historical.  TT-     .  r    XT  XTTTTT 

History  of  Newspapers,  XVII.  42. 
Piracy,  XIX.  116. 
Hypatia,  XII.  596. 

12 


i;8  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Semiramis,  XXI.  639. 
Aspasia  II.  714. 

Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  II.  480. 
The  Spanish  Armada,  II.  543. 

Great  fires:  in  London,  XIV.  826;  in  Chicago,  V.  611  ; 
in  Boston,  IV.  75. 

World's  Fair,  sup.  3195. 
International  Exhibitions,  XVIII.  803. 

VII.    MISCELLANEOUS. 

James  Holman,  the  blind  traveller,  XII.  103. 

Zerah    Colburn,    the  mathematical   prodigy, 

People  yL     g6> 

and 

Things.  Joseph   Scaliger,    "  the    greatest    scholar   of 

modern  times,"  XXI.  362. 
The  Admirable  Crichton,  VI.  577. 
Kaspar  Hauser,  the    mysterious    German   youth,  XI. 

523. 

Christian  Heinrich  Heinecken,  the  precocious  child,  XI. 
628. 

Dwarfs,  VII.  567. 

Siamese  Twins,  XVI.  765. 

Heredity,  I.  87. 

Animal  Magnetism,  XV.  277. 

Hypnotism,  XV.  277-283. 

The  Malthusian  Doctrine,  XV.  344. 

Darwinism,  XXIV.  77-85. 

Cryptography,  VI.  669. 

White  Magic  (sleight  of  hand),  XV.  207.  See  also 
Legerdemain,  XIV.  414;  Ventriloquism,  sup.  3030. 

Thugs,  XXIII.  326. 

Assassins,  II.  722. 

Story  of  the  Tichborne  Claimant,  sup.  2909. 


PART  III. 


THE  BUSY  WORLD. 


179 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE   MANUFACTURER. 

"  Active  doer,  noble  liver, 
Strong  to  labor,  sure  to  conquer." 

— Robert  Browning. 

FEW  subjects  engage  the  attention  of  so  large  a  num- 
ber of  busy  men  as  does  that  of  manufacturing.     Who, 
indeed,  is  not  either  directly  or  indirectly  inter- 

Maker  ested  in  the  making  of  things,  either  by  hand 
Consumer  or  ^7  machinery  ?  You  may  not  be  a  manu- 
facturer yourself,  but  you  are  necessarily  the 
patron  of  many  manufacturers.  You  are  the  consumer  of 
the  products  of  various  manufacturing  industries,  and  very 
naturally  you  have  a  curiosity  to  know  something  about 
the  processes  by  which  these  products  have  been  evolved 
from  raw  material  and  jnade  into  their  present  forms  of 
usefulness.  The  Encyclopedia  Britannica  will  give  you 
the  desired  information. 

If  you  are  engaged  in  some  particular  line  of  manufac- 
turing, the  Britannica  will  add  to  your  knowledge  con- 
cerning it.  It  will  tell  you  what  are  the  best  materials  to 
be  used,  the  most  economical  processes  to  be  employed, 
and  the  most  desirable  qualities  to  be  sought  in  the  prod- 
ucts which  you  design  to  manufacture.  Besides  this,  it 
will  probably  give  you  a  great  deal  of  interesting  histori- 
cal information  concerning  the  origin,  development,  and 
various  fluctuations  of  the  business  in  which  you  are  en- 
gaged— information  which,  although  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  your  success,  may  nevertheless  add 
your  enjoyment  and  incidentally  to  your 


1 82  GUIDE   TO    THE    BRITANNICA. 

This  subject  covers  so  wide  a  field  and  embraces  so 
many  different  industries  that,  within  our  limited  space, 
we  can  do  but  little  more  than  make  bare  references  to 
some  of  the  most  important  articles  contained  in  the  Bri- 
tannica.  Let  us  first  notice  some  of  the  manufactures  of 

TEXTILE   PRODUCTS. 

1.  Wool  and  Woolen  Manufactures  is  the  title  of  a  spe- 
cial article,  XXIV.  653.     The  first  part  of  this  article,  re- 
lating to  the  early  history  of  the  woolen  indus- 
try, will   interest  every  reader.     See  next   the 

YY  OO1. 

article  on  woolen  manufactures  in  the  United 
States,  sup.  3188,  where  the  very  latest  informa- 
tion and  statistics  are  given.  Now  read  what  is  said  of 

Wool  fibre,  IX.  133. 

Bleaching  of  wool,  III.  822. 

Dyeing  of  wool,  VII.  571. 

Cassimeres,  sup.  718. 

Spinning,  XXIV.  730,  XIV.  664. 

Loom,  XXIV.  64,  XXIII.  206,  210. 

Turn  to  the  illustrated  article  on  TEXTILES,  XXIII. 
206,  and  read  the  interesting  history  there  given  of  the  art 
of  weaving. 

2.  For  an  account  of  flax  and  linen  manufactures,  see 

XIV.  663. 

The  manufacture  of  linen  in  England,  VIII. 

232;    in   Ireland,    II.    143,   and   XIII.   231;    in 

Scotland,  VII.  534. 
Cultivation  of  flax  in  America,  I.  64. 
Bleaching  of  linen,  III.  820. 

3.  For  a  complete  history  of  cotton  and  cotton  manu- 
factures, see  VI.  482. 


THE   MANUFACTURER.  183 

Cotton    in    the    United    States,    824;     in    India,    XII. 

748  ;    in   Egypt,  VII.  708,  786;    in  Brazil,  IV. 

227. 

Cotton  manufacture   in  England,  VIII.  230; 

in  India,  XII.  761,  763  ;  in  Russia,  XXI.  849. 
Bleaching  of  cotton,  III.  812. 
Dyeing  of  cotton,  VII.  576. 
Cotton-spinning  frame,  II.  541. 

Robert     Owen's    improvements    in    cotton     spinning, 
XVIII.  87. 

Cotton  yarns,  XXIV.  731. 

The  spinning-jenny,  II.  541  and  VI.  490. 

The  spinning-wheel,  XXIV.  664. 

Calico,  VI.  488,  500. 

Calico  printing,  IV,  684. 

Ginghams,  X.  604. 

Gauze,  X.  118. 

Laces,  XIV.  183. 

See  Samuel  Slater,  sup.  2728. 

4.  For  a  history  of  silk  and  silk  manufactures,  see  XXII. 
56,61. 

Manufacture  of  silk  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2717; 
in  England,  VIII.  232  ;  in  India,  XII.  761  ;  in 
China,  V.  638  ;  in  France,  IX;  520  ;  in  Italy, 

ollK ,  _  _  _  _  _ 

XIII.  442. 

Silk  in  ancient  times,  XXIII.  208. 
Bleaching  of  silk,  III.  822. 
The  silkworm,  IV.  596  and  XIII.  151. 
Silk  frofn  spiders,  II.  295. 

5.  Miscellaneous. 

Hosiery,  XII.  299,  and  VIII.  233. 
Knitting,  XIV.  127. 


1 84  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Invention  of  the  stocking  frame,  XII.  299. 
Cloth,  weaving  of,  XXIV.  463,  466. 
Ancient  weaving  of  cloth,  XXIII.  206. 
Improvements  in  looms,  sup.  1915. 

Carpets,  V.  127  ;  Persian  carpets,  XVII I.  626  ;  Turkish 
II.  708;  Oriental,  XXIII.  21 1. 

Canvas,  V.  40;  canvas  for  sails,  XXI.  154. 
Straw  manufactures,  XXII.  593. 
Rope-making,  XX,  844. 
Twine  manufacture,  XX.  845. 
Rhea  fibre,  XX.  506. 

MINERAL   PRODUCTS. 

I.  Iron  manufactures,  XIII.  278. 

Statistics  of  iron  manufacture,  XIII.  358;  iron  industry 
in  the   United  States,  XXIII.  813;   sup.  1694; 
Iron.       iron  as  building  material,  IV.  447. 
Strength  of  iron,  XXII.  603. 

The  Blast  Furnace,  IX.  840;  III.  550;  sup.  1695. 

Melting-point  of  metals,  sup.  2033. 

Puddling,  XIII.  320. 

Pig  iron,  XIII.  306,  284. 

Cast  iron,  XIII.  281,  318. 

Manufacture  of  steel,  XIII.  358;  strength  of  steel, 
XXII.  603;  rigidity  of,  VII.  815;  manufacture  in  the 
United  States,  XXIII.  813  ;  sup.  1700  ;  use  in  ships,  XVII. 
288. 

Bessemer  steel,  sup.   1701. 

Steel  castings,  sup.  1704. 

Nails,  XVII.  165. 

Screws,  XX.  552. 

Locks,  XIV.  744- 

Galvanized  iron,  XIII.  357. 


THE   MANUFACTURER.  185 

Foundry  operations,  IX.  479. 

The  casting  of  metal,  IX.  479. 

Rolling-mills,  XIII.  328. 

Wire,  XXIV.  614;  wire-drawing,  sup.  3175;  strength 
of,  XVI.  65  ;  elasticity  of,  VII.  80,  803  ;  telegraph  wire, 
XXIII.  114;  wire  nails,  XVII.  166;  wire  rope,  XX.  846; 
wire  netting,  XVII.  360;  wire  fences,  I.  310;  wire-glass, 
sup.  3173. 

Stoves,  XXII.  579. 

Iron  pipes,  II.  322. 

Pipe-making,  sup.  2393. 

2.  Copper,  VI.  347  ;  copper  wire,  XXIV.  615. 

Brass  (alloy  of  copper  and  zinc),  IV.  217  ;  zinc,  XXIV. 

784. 

Copper  Tin,  XXIII.  400;  strength  of,  XXII.  603. 

and  Tin.  Tin-plate,  XIII.  357. 

Can  manufacture  and  canner's  tools,  sup.  684. 

Tin-plate  manufacture  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2916. 

Bronze  (alloy  of  copper  and  tin),  VI.  351, 

Early  casting  of  bronze,  II.  348. 

Strength  of,  XXII.  603. 

Bronze  work,  XVI.  71. 

3.  Silver,  XXII.  69. 
Silver  plate,  XXII.  71. 
Silver  plate  works,  XIX.  178. 
Silvering,  XXII.  71. 

Silver  wire,  XXIV.  615. 

Use  of  silver  in  mirrors,  XVI.  501. 
Precious  Silver  lace,  X.  753. 

Metals.  Silversmiths  in  Rome,  II.  366. 

Gold,  X.  740. 
Gold  plate,  XIX.  178. 


1 86  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Gold  wire,  XXIV.  615. 
Gold  thread,  XXIII.  209. 
Gold  lace  X.  753  ;  gold  cloth,  XXIII.  210. 
Ancient  workers  in  gold,  XXIII.  210. 
See  now  the  chapter  entitled  The  Miner,  in  this  volume  ; 
also  The  Railroad  Man,  and  The  Machinist. 

4.  Pottery,  XIX.  600;  burning  of,  XX.  133  ;  glazing,  IV. 

Si- 

Pottery  Industry  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2431. 
Palissy's  pottery,  XVIII.  186. 

Wedgwood's  pottery,  XXIV.  476. 

Japanese  pottery,  XIII.  590. 

Indian  pottery,  XII.  763. 

The  potteries,  sup.  1431. 
Kaolin,  XIV.  I. 

Porcelain,  clay  for,  XIV.  I  and  XVI  424. 
Chinese  porcelain,  XIV.  90. 
Japanese  porcelain,  XIII.   590- 
Limoges  ware,  XIV.  651. 
Sevres  ware,  XIX.  637. 

5.  Glass,  history  of,  X.  647. 
Manufacture  of  glass,  X.  650. 

Manufacture  of  glass  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1407. 
Annealing,  II.  63. 

Colors  of  glass,  XXIV.  427. 

Painting  on,  X.  667. 

Venetian  glass  works,  XVII.  48. 

Glass  cutting,  VII.  167. 
Plate  glass,  X.  662. 
.Wire  glass,  sup.  3173. 
Window  glass,  X.  660,  668. 
Glass  bottles,  IV.  167,  and  X.  664. 


THE    MANUFACTURER.  l8/ 

Glass  wire,  sup.  1408. 
Mirrors,  XVI.  499. 

6.  Leather,  XIV.  380. 
Artificial  leather,  XIV.  391. 
Latest  processes,  sup.  1849. 
Shoemaking,  XXI.  830. 

7.  Paper,  XVIII.  217. 
Papier-mache,  XVIII.  228. 
Parchment,  XVIII.  271. 
Linoleum,  XIV.  676. 
Lincrusta  Walton,  XIV.  662. 

8.  Flour,  sup.  1293  ;  IX.  343  ;  III.  251. 
Bread,  III.  250. 

Cracknels,  III.  252. 
Macaroni,  XV.  125. 
The  Canning  Industry,  sup.  703. 
Raisins,  sup.  3057. 

Sugar,  XXII.  622. 

Food  Sugar-making  machinery,  sup.  2818. 

Products.  Beet  sugar,  I.  382. 

Glucose  sugar,  sup.  1412. 
Maple  sugar,  sup.  1988. 
Molasses,  XXII.  626. 
Salt,  XXI.  228,  XXIII.  817. 

Animal   foods,  see  Packing,  sup.  2278,  and  Abattoirs, 
sup.  II. 

/ 

9.  Brick-making,  IV.  280. 
Ancient  bricks,  XIX.  604,  619. 
Glazed  brick,  XVII.  35- 
Tiles,  XXIII.  387,  IV.  283. 


188  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Gutta-percha,  XI.  337. 

India-rubber,    XII.   835,   839;     Goodyear's 
inventions,  sup.  1425. 

Rope-making,  sup.  2575. 
Straw  manufactures,  XXII.  593. 
Baskets,  III.  421. 
Needles,  XVII.  313. 

Pigments — methods  of  manufacturing  paints,  XIX.  85. 
Hats,  XI.  518  ;  straw  hats,  XXII.  593. 
Gloves,  X.  692,  XIV.  389. 
Pins,  XIX.  97. 
Button-making,  IV.  599. 
American  watches,  sup.  3097. 
Fans,  IX.  27 
Furniture,  IX.  847. 

Very  interesting  are  the  accounts  that  are  given  of  some 
of  the  great  manufacturing  centres,  such  as  : 

Manchester,  the  centre  of  the  English  cotton  industry, 

XV.  459-  . 

Birmingham,    noted    for   its    iron    and    steel 

Manufactur-  works,  III.  780. 

ing  Centres.       Sheffield,  famous  for  its  cutlery,  XXI.  785. 

Philadelphia,  and  its  extensive  and  varied  in- 
dustries, XVIII.  736. 

Pittsburg,  and  its  iron  manufacturers,  sup.  2396. 

Lowell,  and  its  cotton  mills,  sup.  1924. 

Lynn,lamous  for  the  manufacture  of  shoes,  sup.  1936. 

Boston,  IV.  72;  Newark,  XVII.  370;  Wilmington, 
XXIV.  589;  Birmingham,  Alabama,  III.  287;  and  scores 
of  other  manufacturing  cities  of  similar  importance. 

For  statistics  and  other  information  concerning  manu- 
factures in  all  the  principal  countries  of  the  world,  see 


THE   MANUFACTURER.  189 

the  appropriate  paragraph  under  the  name  of  each  coun- 
try.    For  example  : 
Statistics.          Manufactures  in  England,  VIII.  230. 

Manufactures  in  Germany,  X.  459. 
Manufactures  in  Arabia,  II.  245. 
See  World's  Fairs,  sup.  3209. 

But  the  intelligent  reader  will  require  no  further  assist- 
ance from  the  GUIDE  in  finding  such  information. 


GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

THE   MECHANIC. 
"  Thou  art  deeper  read,  and  better  skilled." — Titus  Andronicus. 

WHAT  constitutes  the  difference  between  the  good  arti- 
san and  the  bungler  ?  Knowledge  and  skill.  These  may 
be  attained  in  some  degree  by  practice  in  the 
handling  of  tools  ;  but  that  broader  knowledge 
Bungler?  which  leads  to  success,  and  that  more  perfect 
skill  which  wins  distinction,  can  be  acquired 
only  through  diligent  study.  The  mechanic  who  would 
rise  to  a  higher  position  in  his  calling,  must  learn  all  about 
the  nature  of  the  materials  with  which  he  works  ;  he  must 
know  what  are  the  best  tools  to  use,  and  why  ;  he  must 
understand  the  philosophy  of  the  forces  with  which  he 
deals ;  and  he  must  seek  to  comprehend  the  natural  laws 
which  govern  or  regulate  the  operations  connected  with 
his  particular  handicraft.  This  is  the  kind  of  knowledge 
which  enables  the  humblest  workman  to  develop  into 
the  foreman,  the  manager,  the  inventor,  the  skilled 
artisan. 

Now  there  is  no  other  printed  publication  in  the  world 
which  offers  the  means  of  acquiring  so  much  of  this  kind 
of  knowledge  as  does  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica.  There 
is  hardly  a  single  difficult  problem  connected  with  the 
laws  of  mechanics  or  of  machinery  which  is  not  clearly 
explained  in  the  Britannica.  There  is  hardly  a  knotty 


THE   MECHANIC.  19! 

question  with  reference  to  tools,  materials,  or  products 
which  is  not  elucidated  or  answered  in  one  of  these  vol- 
umes. The  successful  mechanic  will  not  always 
Mechanic's  wait  for  these  difficulties  to  present  themselves. 
Helper.  He  will  study  the  principles  of  his  trade  and 
every  detail  concerning  it,  so  as  to  be  ready  be- 
forehand for  all  emergencies.  Instead  of  running  with 
childish  questions  to  his  foreman,  he  is  ready  himself  to 
give  instructions  to  those  who  are  in  need  of  them.  His 
workmanship  is  of  superior  character.  He  is  constantly 
improving,  while  his  fellows  who  work  without  thought 
remain  always  on  the  same  level.  His  greater  knowledge 
leads  to  greater  ability.  His  employer  recognizes  the 
greater  value  of  his  services.  Promotion  comes  to  him  as 
a  matter  of  course.  Success  and  fortune  are  waiting  for 
him — and  all  because  he  has  made  use  of  the  opportunities 
for  self-culture  which  lie  within  the  reach  of  every  one  who 
will  take  the  trouble  to  secure  them. 

In  these  days  there  are  so  many  kinds  of  handicrafts 
and  so  many  classes  of  mechanics,  that  to  mark  out  com- 
plete courses  of  study  with  relation  to  all  would  require 
more  space  than  we  have  at  command.  But  the  Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica  contains  a  vast  amount  of  valuable  in- 
formation concerning  every  one  of  them  ;  and  it  is  the 
object  of  the  GUIDE  to  help  you  to  get  at  some  of  this 
information  in  a  methodical  way,  and  thereby  make  you 
the  better  able  to  carry  on  these  studies  independently 
and  without  aid. 

Your  first  thought,  no  doubt,  will  be  to  turn  at  once  to 
the  article  MECHANICS,  XV.  676;  but  it  will  be  better  to 
leave  this  article  until  we  have  made  a  study  of  some  of 
the  materials  and  tools  with  which  you  propose  to  work. 
In  this  way  we  shall  gradually  approach  the  difficult 
science  of  mechanics,  and  by  and  by  we  shall  be  prepared 


IQ2  GUIDE   TO   THE    BRITANNICA. 

to   read   portions  of  this  exhaustive  article  with  a  more 
thorough  appreciation  than  is  now  possible. 

THE   WOOD-WORKER. 

Are  you  a  worker  in  wood  ?    Here  are  a  few  articles,  or 
parts  of  articles,  which  you  will  read  with  pleas- 
Wood  ure  and  profit. 
Work.  Lumber,  IX.  404. 

Strength  of  materials,  XXII.  594,  sup.  2799'. 

Bending  of  plank,  XV.  744. 

Carpentry,  IV.  476. 

Sawing  of  wood,  XXI  345. 

Joinery,  IV.  485. 

Fir,  IX.  222. 

Teak,  XXIII.  103. 

Hemlock,  II.  320. 

Spruce,  XI.  222. 

Oak,  XVII.  689. 

Pine  XIX.  102. 

Poplar,  XIX.  510. 

Rosewood,  XX.  851. 

Mahogany,  XV.  288. 

The  early  use  of  tools,  VIII.  617. 

The  plane,  XI.  437. 
Tools.  _.,  -,7-j 

The  auger,  XL.  438. 

Other  hand  tools,  XI.  437. 
Machine  tools,  XV.  152. 
Turners'  tools,  XIV.  324. 
The  hammer,  XI.  425. 
The  lathe,  XIV.  323. 
Glue,  X.  133,  and  IV.  489. 
Veneering,  XXIV.  138,  and  IX.  489. 
Varnish,  XXIV.  91. 
Barrel-making,  sup.  361. 


THE    MECHANIC.  IQ3 

Wood-carving,  XXIV.  644,  and  V.   168. 

These  are  mentioned  here  simply  as  samples  of  the 
numerous  articles  wherein  the  wood-working  mechanic 
will  find  practical  information  concerning  the  materials, 
tools,  etc.,  of  his  handicraft.  If  you  are  a  carpenter  or 
builder,  turn  now  to  the  chapter  in  this  volume  entitled 
The  Builder,  and  observe  the  long  and  valuable  list  of 
references  there  given. 

THE    METAL-WORKER. 

The  metal-worker  will  find  that  most  of  the  above  refer- 
ences are  of  direct  importance  to  him  also,  and  he  will 
scarcely  be  willing  to  omit  any  of  them  from 
Metal  his  course  of  reading.  Besides  these  there  are 

Work.  numerous  others  which  he  will  regard  as  having 

a  special  value,  referring,  as  they  do,  directly  to 
the  handicraft  in  which  he  is  the  most  deeply  interested. 
Here  are  a  few  of  them  : 

Anvil,  II.  147;  XI.  426. 

Smith-work  in  building,  IV.  510. 

Annealing,  II.  63,  and  XIII.  352. 

Forge,  IX.  412  ;  its  history,  XIII.  290  ;  forging-machines, 
IX.  413- 

Foundry,  IX.  479  ;  XIII.  355. 

Bellows  for  smelting  ores,  XVI.  60. 

Blast  furnace,  IX.  840;  III.  550:  sup.  1695. 

Iron,  XIII.  278. 

Iron  as  building  material,  IV.  447. 

Iron-work  in  architecture,  11.466  ;  XVI.  71. 

Famous  iron-works :  at  Barrow-in-Furness,  England, 
III.  395;  at  Stafford,  England,  XXII.  442;  at  Neviansk, 
Russia,  XVII.  369. 

Iron  bridges,  IV.  334. 

Nail-making,  XVII.  165. 
13 


194  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Tack-making,  sup.  2845. 

Steel,  XIII.  278. 

Tube-making,  IV.  218. 

Valves,  XXII.  501. 

Wire-making,  sup.  2173. 

Wire,  XXIV.  614;  wire-drawing,  IV.  217. 

Arms,  II.  588;  artillery,  II.  655  ;  rifles,  XL  282  ;  rifling 
of  cannon,  XI.  294.  (See  chapter  in  this  GUIDE  entitled 
The  Soldier?) 

Assaying,  II.  724;  XVI.  63. 

Boilers  for  steam  engines,  XXII.  496 ;  improvement  in, 
for  abating  smoke,  XXII.  181. 

Brass,  IV.  217. 

Bronze,  IV.  366. 

Copper,  VI.  347.  (See  chapter  in  this  GUIDE  entitled 
The  Miner?] 

Electro-plating,  VIII.  116.  (See  chapter  in  this  GUIDE 
entitled  The  Electrician?] 

Metallurgy,  XVI.  57. 

Metal  work,  XVI.  71. 

Tin-plate  manufacture  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2916. 

THE    LEATHER-WORKER. 

There  are  mechanics  who   work  neither  in  wood    nor 

in  metal.     Of  these,  one  of  the  most  prominent 

is  the  man  who  works  with  leather  or  with  the 

Leather         prepared  skins  of  animals,     For  him  there  are, 

in  the  Britannica,  such  articles  as  the  following : 

Tanning,  XIV.  381. 

Tannin,  XXIII.  47. 

Leather,  XIV.  380. 

Buff  leather,  sup.  610. 

Cordovan  leather,  sup.  917. 

Artificial  leather,  XIV.  391. 


THE    MECHANIC.  IQ5 

New  processes  in  making  leather,  sup.  980. 
Shoemaking,  XXI.  830. 
Harness-making  and  saddlery,  XXI.  142. 
Stamped  leather  for  wall  decoration,  XVII.  37. 
Morocco  leather,  XIV.  388. 
Book-binding,  IV.  41  ;  XIV.  538. 

THE    PAPER-WORKER. 

Then  there  is  the   worker  on  paper,  who  will   find  the 
following  articles  brimful  of  information : 

Paper,    XVIII.    217;    manufacture    of,    XVIII.    219; 
bleaching  of  materials,  III.  821. 
Ruling  of  paper,  XXII.  461. 
Wall  paper,  IV.  512;  XVII.  38. 
Papier-mache,  XVIII.  228. 
Paper  pulp,  sup.  XVIII.  225,  226. 
See  the  chapter  in  this  volume  entitled  The  Laborer. 

THE   STONE-WORKER. 

Building-stone,  sup.  614;  IV.  448. 
Stone  cutting  and  dressing,  sup.  2794. 
Strength  of  building-stone,  XXII.  603. 
Plaster-work,  IV.  504. 
Cements,  V.  328  ;  IV.  459  ;  XIV.  647. 
Stone  pavements,  IV.  473. 
Chimney-pieces,  IV.  473. 
Limestone,  X.  232. 
Marble,  XV.  528. 
Marble  veneer,  XVII.  36. 
Sandstone,  X.  237. 
Granite,  XI.  48. 

See  the  references  to  labor  and  wages  in  the  chapter 
entitled  The  Political  Economist,  in  this  volume. 


196  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER.  XXV. 

THE    MACHINIST. 

"  He  that  loves  reading  has  everything  within  his  reach." — William 
Godwin. 

IN  addition  to  the  articles  already  mentioned   in   the 
chapter  addressed  to  the  Mechanic,  the  practical  machin- 
ist will  find  a  great  many  others  which  will  be 

of  direct  and  special  aid  to  him  in  his  calling. 
Machines.  TT-H 

He  will  want  to  make  a  caretul  study  ot   that 

portion  of  the  article  MECHANICS  which  refers 
directly  to  the  theory  of  machines,  XV.  752.  He  will 
want  to  read  what  is  said  about  their  purposes  and  effects, 
XV.  7/1.  There  may  be  other  portions  also  of  the  same 
article  which  will  answer  troublesome  questions  or  dif- 
ficult problems  that  come  in  his  way,  and  to  find  what 
he  needs  he  should  refer  to  the  index  to  the  article,  XV. 
749.  The  article  on  Machine  Tools,  XV.  152,  will  have  a 
special  value  to  him.  The  supplementary  article  on  spe- 
cial forms  of  machine  tools,  sup.  1951,  gives  an  exceed- 
ingly interesting  description  of  some  of  the  latest  inven- 
tions of  this  class.  See,  also,  Tool-making,  sup.  2927. 

THE  STEAM  ENGINE,  XXII.  473 — a  very  complete  and 
comprehensive  treatise  (fifty-four  pages,  illustrated)  written 
by  Professor  Ewing  of  Dundee,  one  of  the  most 
Steam          eminent  of  living  authorities.     Additional  mat- 
Engine,         ter  concerning  the  invention  of  the  steam  en- 
gine  by  Watts  may  be  found  in  XXIV.  412. 
The  improvements  made  by  Murdock  are  briefly  noted  in 


THE   MACHINIST.  IQ7 

XVII.  53,  and  those  of  Trevithick,  in  XXIII.  554.  See 
also  Governors,  sup.  1433. 

Various  applications  of  the  steam  engine  are  described : 
Its  use  in  steamships,  XXII.  517,  and  XXI.  823;  its  use 
in  locomotive  engines,  XX.  205,  244,  and  XXII.  537;  its 
use  in  land  carriages,  VIII.  726;  its  application  to  farm 
machinery,  I.  305,  etc. 

The  article  HYDROMECHANICS,  XII.  435  ;  the  appli- 
cation of  water  to  mechanical  purposes,  as  described  in 
the  chapters  on  Hydraulic  Machinery,  XII. 

Hydro-  $19>  and  sup.  1641.  The  hydraulic  press,  XV. 
mschanics.  753,  and  the  history  of  its  invention,  IV.  213. 
The  article  on  Calender,  IV.  683. 

The   description   of   Montgolfier's  hydraulic    ram,   IV. 

173. 

The  description  of  the  hydraulic  elevator  (lift),  XII.  520, 
and  XIV.  574. 

Of  water  motors  in  general,  XII.  519. 

Of  water  power  in  mechanics,  XV.  773. 

Of  water  wheels  and  their  action,  XII.  438,  522. 

Late  improvements  in  water  wheels,  sup.  3104. 

Of  the  uses  of  air  in  connection  with  mechanics,  read 
the  article  PNEUMATICS,  XIX.  240;  refer  also  to  XII.  439, 

445- 

Its  special  application  in  air  locks  is  noticed  in  sup.  104; 

in  the  air  washer  for  extinguishing  fires,  IX.  681  ;  in  the 
pneumatic  power  transmitter,  XV.  753 ;  in 
pneumatic  tubes,  XII.  491 ;  in  the  air  engine, 

Pneumatics^  ; 

I.  428  ;  in  the  air  gun,  I.  428  ;  in  the  air  pump, 

XVI.  30;  XIX.  246;  1.429. 

As  to  the  application  of  air  in  propelling  machinery,  see 
Windmills,  XXIV.  599 ;  XV.  773. 
Wind  carriages,  XXII.  545. 


198  GUIDE   TO    THE   BRITANNICA. 

See  also  what  is  said  about  the  wind  in  navigation, 
XVII.  275.  In  this  connection  it  will  be  interesting  to  learn 
many  important  facts  concerning  the  nature  of  air :  Its 
composition,  III.  32  ;  its  density,  III.  381  ;  its  weight,  III. 
28;  its  other  physical  properties,  XIX.  240. 

Here,  too,  you  may  read  of  the  efforts  that  have  been 
made  to  navigate  the  air,  I.  187,  with  a  description  of  all 
the  great  balloons  that  have  ever  been  constructed. 
Whether  it  is  possible  ever  to  build  a  successful  air  ship  no 
one  can  yet  predict.  The  problem  of  aeronautics  has, 
however,  engaged  the  attention  of  inventors  for  many 
years,  and  the  history  of  their  efforts  and  ex- 
Balloons,  periments  is  in  the  highest  degree  interesting 
and  instructive.  Read  of  the  invention  of  the 
balloon  by  Stephen  and  Joseph  Montgolfier,  I.  187  ;  of  the 
later  experiments  by  Langley,  Maxim,  Chanute,  Lilien- 
thal,  and  others,  sup.  55;  and  of  the  aeronautic  associa- 
tions which  have  been  formed  for  the  encouragement  of 
further  experiments  and  inventions. 

But  air  is  only  a  gas — or  rather  the  combination  of  two 
gases,  I.  427 — and  much  that  is  true  with  reference  to  its 
properties  applies  also  to  gases  in  general.  And  so  the 
machinist  who  finds  it  necessary  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  laws  of  pneumatics  will  not  only  study  the  prop- 
erties of  air  in  motion  and  at  rest,  but  will  learn  all  that 
he  can  about  gases  in  general,  VI.  310,  their  physical 
properties,  XIX.  240,  and  their  diffusion,  VII.  215. 

Of  the  application  of  gas  to  the  purposes  of  machinery, 

see  what  is  said  about  gas  engines,  XXII.  523  ;  expansion 

of  gases  by  heat,  XI.  574,  and  XX.  347 ;  elas- 

Gas.  ticity  of  gases,  VII.  801  ;  dilation  of  gases,  III. 

35  ;  their  molecular  laws,  XVI.  611. 
Then  read  about  the  discovery  and  use  of  natural  gas 
in  the  United  States,  XXIII.  813,  and  sup.  2140. 


THE   MACHINIST.  199 

For  a  list  of  references  relating  to  applications  of  elec- 
tricity, see  the  chapter  in  this  volume  entitled  The  Elec- 
trician. 

The  meaning  of  the  term  horse  power,  and  its  applica- 
tion in  practical  mechanics,  is  explained  in  XV.  772,  773  ; 
and  it  is  still  further   noticed  in  XII.  207,  and 

Horse        XV.  715.     The  signification  of  the  term  when 

Power.       used  in  connection  with  steam  engines  is  made 
clear  in  XXII.  476,  491. 

There  are  still  other  forces  which  influence  the  action  of 
machinery,  and  of  whose  manifestations  and  laws  the  ma- 
chinist cannot  afford  to  be  ignorant.     There  is 
Laws  of      GRAVITATION,    for  example,  the    influence  of 
Mechanics,    which   must    always  be   considered    when    any 
system  of  machinery  is  contemplated.     Study 
the  article  on  this  subject,  XL  66. 

Then  read  of  the  discovery  of  the  general  law  of  gravi- 
tation, II.  755  ;  of  the  various  theories  in  relation  to  it, 
III.  64;  of  gravity  in  mechanics,  XV.  701,  729;  and  of 
the  discoveries  of  Archimedes  concerning  the  centre  of 
gravity,  II.  380. 

Still  pursuing  this  line  of  study,  read  of  the  laws  and 
effects  of  adhesion,  I.  153;  of  cohesion,  V.  56;  and  of 
elasticity,  VII.  796. 

The  laws  of  friction  must  now  claim  your  attention, 
and  these  you  will  find  very  fully  treated  in  IX.  777, 
and  XV.  702,  765.  The  action  of  friction  in  connection 
with  liquids  is  described  in  XII.  482,  and  with  gases  in 
XVI.  618. 

The  expenditure  of  energy  in  the  overcoming  of  fric- 
tion is  explained  in  VIII.  208,  and  the  influence  of  lubri- 
cants in  preventing  friction  receives  attention  in  XV.  35. 

For  an  elaborate  and  very  practical  essay  on  strength 
of  materials,  see  sup.  2799—2811. 


200  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

You  are  now  ready  for  the  article  on  DYNAMICS,  or  the 
science  which  treats  of  the  action  of  force  ;  and  after  that 
for  the  article  on   Energy,  or  the  power  of  doing  work, 
VIII.  205.     Then  read  the  following  : 
Force,  VII.  581 

Dynamics.  _,  ,rTT     ,     . 

.    Motion,  XV.  676,  752. 
Momentum,  XV.  677. 

Velocity,  XV.  681,769. 

Inertia,  XV.  676,  748. 

Laws  of  Projectiles,  XXII.  47. 

If  you  have  followed  this  course  of  reading  faithfully, 
you  have  acquired  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  those 
fundamental  principles  of  mechanics  which  govern  the  ac- 
tion and  modify  the  effectiveness  of  all  machinery.  Much 
of  the  reading  has  been  difficult :  it  has  required  hard 
study  to  master  it  all.  But  now  you  will  understand  what 
is  meant  when  it  is  said  that  it  is  the  well-informed  mind 
no  less  than  the  skilful  hand  that  makes  the  successful 
mechanic.  Knowledge  never  impairs  one's  ability  to  work, 
but  it  adds  to  that  ability.  Of  course,  knowledge  cannot 
supply  the  place  of  energy  and  strength.  A  good  mind 
must  be  aided  by  strong  arms  ;  a  full  memory  must  have 
the  support  of  steady  industry,  or  no  worthy  success 
can  be  attained.  The  best  artisan  is  he  who  possesses  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  foundation  principles  of  his 
calling,  while  at  the  same  time  he  has  the  trained  hand  and 
eye  and  the  obedient  muscle  which  can  result  only  from 
long  and  patient  training  and  experience. 

See  now,  for  further  references,  the  following  chapters 
in  this  GUIDE  : 

The  Architect,  The  Builder,  The  Manufacturer,  The 
Electrician,  The  Inventor,  and  Two  Courses  of  Reading  in 
Physics. 


THE   ELECTRICIAN.  2OI 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE   ELECTRICIAN. 

"  Every  person  has  two  educations,  one  which  he  receives  from  oth- 
ers, and  one,  more  important,  which  he  gives  to  himself." — Gibbon. 

PRACTICAL  electricians  will  find  in  the  supplementary 
article  on  Electricity,  sup.  1133-1173,  a  very  comprehen- 
sive presentation  of  the  entire  subject  as  it  is  now  under- 
stood. This  article,  which  comprises  forty  pages,  is  very 
fully  illustrated,  and  gives  a  complete  outline  of  all  the 
latest  discoveries.  It  is  invaluable  to  all  persons  who  are 
in  any  way  interested  in  this  subject. 

The  leading  article  on  electricity,  in  the  eighth  volume 
of  the  Britannica,  comprises  over  one  hundred 

Special       pages — equal  in  amount  of  matter  to   an  ordi- 

Article.  nary  I2mo  volume  of  nearly  five  hundred  pages. 
For  the  sake  of  non-scientific  readers  it  is  intro- 
duced by  a  brief  history  of  the  science,  wherein  mention 
is  made  of  some  of  the  more  striking  electrical  discoveries, 
and  of  the  steps  by  which  our  knowledge  of  the  subject 
has  advanced  to  its  present  condition. 

FAMOUS   ELECTRICIANS. 

In  connection  with  the  above-named  articles,  the  fol- 
lowing notices  of  men  who  have  contributed  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  science  will  be  read  with  interest : 

Dr.  Gilbert  (1540-1603),  founder  of  the  science,  X.  592. 

Robert    Boyle  (1627-91),  one    of   the   earliest   exj£flPf?T " 
m  enters.  ^ 


202  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Otto  von  Guericke  (1602-80),  XI.  245. 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  (1643-1727),  XVII.  438. 

Francis  Hawksbee  (1705),  VIII.  4. 

Galvani,  discoverer  of  galvanism,  X.  48. 

Benjamin  Franklin  (1706-90),  IX.  711. 

Henry  Cavendish  (1731-1810),  V.  271. 
Coulomb  (1736-1806),  VI.  509. 
Volta  inventor  of  the  voltaic  battery,  XXIV.  284. 
Ampere,  I.  748. 
Ohm,  XVII.  738. 
Michael  Faraday,  IX.  29. 
Cyrus  W.  Field,  sup.  1264. 
Nikola  Tesla,  sup.  2882. 
Thomas  A.  Edison,  sup.  1115. 

SPECIAL   SUBJECTS   IN   ELECTRICITY. 

Accumulators,  I.  92. 

Armatures,  sup.  235  ;  armature  drum,  sup.  1158. 

Batteries:   History   of  VIII.  92,  94;   Bichromate,   sup. 

1170;    Bunsen's,    sup.     1169;    copper    oxide,    sup.    1170; 

Daniel's    sup.    1169;  Grove's,    sup.    1169;   Le- 

Reference      clanche's,  sup.  1170;  silver  chloride,  sup.   1170; 

List.          Voltaic,  sup.  1 1 68. 

Circuit,  Magnetic,  sup.  1151. 

Condensers,  sup.  1 143. 

Conductors  and  non-conductors,  sup.   1134,  1140,  1146. 

Currents,  sup.  1144,  1159. 

Diagometer,  sup.  1039. 

Dynamo  electric  machines,  sup.  1156. 

Dynamos,  sup.  1159. 

Electric  light  in  microscopy,  sup.  2057. 

Electric  meters,  VIII.  107,  108. 

Electrification,  sup.  1135. 

Electrodynamic  action,  VIII.  10,  66,  105. 


THE    ELECTRICIAN.  2O3 

Electrolysis,  or  the  decomposition  of  chemical  sub- 
stances by  the  agency  of  the  electrical  current,  is  dealt 
with  in  a  comprehensive  and  scientific  manner  in  VIII. 
106-114. 

A  supplementary  article  on  the  same  subject  (see  sup. 
1174—1176)  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  latest  dis- 
coveries and  investigations  in  this  branch  of  science. 

Electromagnets,  VIII.  66;  sup.  1147,  1150. 

Electrometallurgy,  VIII.  114. 

Electrometer,  VIII.  117-122. 

Electromotive  force,  sup.  1145. 

Electromotograph,  sup.  1176. 

Electrophorus,  VIII.  101  ;  sup.  1136. 

Electroscopes,  VIII.  118  ;  diagometer,  sup.  1039. 

Fan-motor,  sup.  1243. 

Field-magnets,  sup.  1158. 

Fluoroscope,  sup.  1295. 

Galvanism,  X.  48  ;  XVII.  524. 

Galvanometers,  X.  49;  VIII.  41  ;  sup.  1147. 

Induction,  Electromagnetic,  sup.  1152. 

Induction-coils,  sup.  1154. 

Influence-machines,  sup.  1137. 

Insulators,  sup.  1134. 

Intensity,  sup.  1139. 

Magnetism,  XV.  219;  sup.  1151  ;  I.  749. 

Ohm's  law,  VIII.  41-43. 

Poles  of  electromagnet,  sup.  1162. 

Potential,  sup.  1141. 

Resonance,  sup.  1162. 

Thermoelectric  generator,  sup.  1378.   ^ 

Rontgen  Rays,  sup.  1166,  2574. 

Transformers,  sup.  1155. 

Volts  and  Amperes,  sup.  1160. 

Voltmeter,  sup.  3061. 


204  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

ELECTRICAL   APPLIANCES   AND    MACHINERY. 

Telegraph,  XXIII.  112. 

Invention  of  the  telegraph,  see  Guillaume  Amontous,  I. 
746 ;  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  XVI.  847  ;  Sir  Charles  Wheatstone, 
XXIV.  537- 

Telegraphic  devices,  sup.  2866. 

The  pantelegraph,  sup.  2289. 

The  The  phonophore,  sup.  2369. 

Telegraph.         Ocean    cables    and    submarine    telegraphy, 
XXII.  281,  and  sup.  1264. 

Telegraphs  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2867. 

Telegraphic  statistics,  sup.  2868. 

Telantograph,  sup.  2866 ;  writing  telegraph,  sup.  3208. 

The  telephone,  XXIII.  127. 

Long-distance  telephones,  sup.  2869. 

Alexander  Graham  Bell,  sup.  408. 

Thomas  A.  Edison,  sup.  1115. 

Telephonic  apparatus,  sup.  2870. 

Theatrophone,  sup.  2888. 

Electric  motors,  XXIII.  496,  508. 

Electric          Latest  improvements  in  electric  motors,  sup. 

Motors.       2115. 

Electric  railways,  XX.  249,  sup.  2505. 

Trolley  systems  for  electric  motors,  sup.  2116,  and 
XXIII.  494. 

Trolley  railways,  sup.  2945. 

Electric  car  construction,  sup.  695. 

Storage  batteries,  sup.  1171. 

Tesla's  oscillator,  sup.  2264. 

Lightning  arresters,  sup.  1886. 

Niagara  power  plant,  sup.  2207. 

Electric  elevators,  sup.   1177. 

Electric  police  and  fire-alarm  systems,  sup.   1272. 


THE   ELECTRICIAN.  2O$ 

Electric  clocks,  VI.  25  ;  sup.  836. 
Electric  alarm  thermometer,  sup.  109. 
Electric  piano,  sup.  2380. 
Electric  regulator,  sup.  2529. 
Electric  lighting,  XIV.  630. 
The  fluorescent  lamp,  sup.  1295. 

Electric  welding,  sup.  3118. 

Phono-      Phonograph,  sup.  2368;  XXIII.  130,   134. 
graph.       Kineto-phonograph,  sup.  1790. 

Gramophone,  sup.  1437. 

Kinetoscope,  sup.  1790. 

Vitascope,  sup.  3057. 

See  the  chapter,  in  this  GUIDE,  entitled  The  Inventor. 

MAGNETISM. 

Magnetism,  XV.  219;  sup.  1151  ;  I.  749. 

Terrestrial  magnetism,  XVI.  159. 
The  Com-     The  compass,  VI.  225. 
pass,  etc.      The  dipping-needle,  sup.  1051. 

Variation  of  magnetic  needle,  XV.  220. 
Relation  of  magnetism  to  electricity,  I.  749. 
Electromagnets,  VIII.  66;  sup.  1147,  1150. 
Field-magnets,  sup.  1158. 
Magnetic  iron  ore,  XIII.  287. 
Animal  magnetism,  XV.  277. 

ELECTRICAL   PHENOMENA. 

Lightning,  XXIII.  330. 

Franklin's  experiment  with  a  kite,  VIII.  6  ;  Lightning 
conductor,  XIV.  633. 

The  cause  of  thunder,  I.  107. 

Natural  laws  regulating  the  frequency  of  thunderstorms, 
XVI.  128. 


206  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Aurora  Borealis,  or  Northern  Lights,  III.  90. 
Connection  of  lightning  with  the  Aurora,  III.  92. 
Sun-spots  and  magnetic  disturbances,  II.  7&7- 
Easy  experiments  to  illustrate  electrical  laws,  VIII.  16. 
Animal  electricity,  sup.  188. 


THE   INVENTOR.  2O? 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

THE   INVENTOR. 

"  Neither  the  naked  hand  nor  the  understanding,  left  to  itself,  can  do 
much  ;  the  work  is  accomplished  by  instruments  and  helps,  of  which  the 
need  is  not  less  for  the  understanding  than  the  hand." — Bacon. 

THERE  are  few  persons  who  have  more  to  gain  from 
self-culture  than  those  who  aspire  to  success  as  inventors. 

It  is  true  that  now  and  then  some  wonderful 
Knowledge  discovery  has  been  stumbled  upon  by  accident.. 
Guesswork  ^ut  a^most  every  invention  that  has  been  of 

any  genuine  importance  to  the  world  has  been 
the  result  of  long  and  patient  study  and  unwearying  toil. 
No  amount  of  guesswork  will  produce  a  new  machine 
possessing  the  qualities  of  novelty  and  utility  requisite  to 
a  successful  invention.  The  man  who  would  bring  such  a 
machine  into  existence  must  devote  his  days  to  the  acquisi- 
tion of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  philosophical  principles 
underlying  its  construction.  He  will  need  to  understand 
the  laws  of  mechanics ;  he  must  be  able  to  perform  cer- 
tain necessary  mathematical  processes  ;  and  he  must  have 
an  insight  into  the  theory  of  machinery.  One  inventor 
will  probably  find  it  necessary  to  study  the  laws  of  hydro- 
statics ;  another  will  need  to  have  a  complete  knowledge 
of  chemistry,  or  of  mineralogy,  or  of  botany  ;  still  another 
will  add  to  all  these  branches  of  knowledge  an  understand- 
ing of  the  science  of  optics,  or  or  acoustics,  or  it  may  be 
of  meteorology,  or  of  astronomy,  or  of  navigation. 


208  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

PATENTS. 

Then,  again,  every  inventor  will  find  it  worth  while  to 
learn  what  has  been  done  by  other  inventors  who  have 
come  before   him.     Turn  to  the   chronological   table  on 
page  720,  Volume  V.,  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  and 
notice  the  dates  when  the  great  inventions  and  discoveries 
which  have  revolutionized  the  world  first  made  their  ap- 
pearance.    Read    next    the    HISTORY    OF    PATENTS    in 
XVIII.    354-358,  and   notice   the   patent   laws 
which  are  now  in  force  in  all  the  principal  coun- 
tries,  and    particularly    in    the  United    States, 
sup.  2309. 

List  of  models  in  the  U.  S.  Patent  Office,  sup.  2311. 
Business  of  the  Patent  Office,  1837-1896,  sup.  2313. 
New  organization  of  the  Patent  Office,  sup.  2315. 
How  to  apply  for  a  patent,  sup.  2317. 
Fees  for  patents,  sup.  2320. 
Trade-marks,  sup.  2321,  XXIII.  499. 
Registration  of  prints,  etc.,  sup.  2322. 
Forgery,  IX.  414. 

GREAT   INVENTORS. 

It  will  now  be  both  profitable  and  interesting  to  read 
the  biographies  of  the  famous  inventors  of  various  times 
and  countries.  You  might  begin  with  the  legendary  story 
of  Daedalus,  the  first  great  inventor,  VII.  760  ;  then  take 
up  subjects  like  the  following : 

Roger  Bacon,  the  first  English  scientist  and  inventor, 
III.  218;  his  magical  inventions,  XV.  208;  his  theory  of 
optical  glasses,  XXIII.  135. 

Sir  Humphry  Davy,  inventor  of  the  safety  lamp,  VI. 
845  ;  the  Davy  lamp,  VI.  72. 

Denis  Papin,  inventor  of  the  heat  engine,  XVIII.  228, 


THE   INVENTOR.  2OQ 

and  XXII.  474;  his  improvements  on  the  air  pump,  XIX. 
246. 

James  Watt,  inventor  of  the  steam  engine,  XXIV.  412. 

Robert  Fulton,  inventor  of  the  steamboat,  III.  542. 

Oliver  Evans,  improver  of  the  steam  engine,  VIII.  726, 
and  XXII.  475. 

Benjamin  Franklin,  the  first  American  scientist,  IX. 
711 ;  his  electrical  researches,  VIII.  6. 

Eli  Whitney,  inventor  of  the  cotton  gin,  XXIV.  1627  ; 
sup.  3145. 

Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  inventor  of  the  telegraph,  XVI.  847. 

David  Edward  Hughes,  inventor  of  the  printing-tele- 
graph, sup.  1629. 

Sir  Richard  Arkwright,  inventor  of  the  spinning-frame, 
II.  540;  VI.  490. 

James  Hargreaves,  inventor  of  the  spinning-jenny,  VI. 
490;  XVII.  600. 

'Charles  Goodyear,  inventor  of  vulcanized  india-rubber, 
sup.  1425. 

Robert  Hare,  inventor  of  the  oxy-hydrogen  blowpipe, 
sup.  1526. 

Samuel   Crompton,  inventor  of  the  spinning-mule,  IV. 

597- 

Samuel  Colt,  inventor  of  improved  firearms,  VI.  166. 

Richard  J.  Gatling,  inventor  of  the  Catling  gun,  sup.  739. 

Henri  de  Girard,  inventor  of  flax-spinning  apparatus, 
X.  620. 

Sir  William  Siemens,  inventor  of  the  gas  engine,  XXII. 
37,  526. 

Elias  Howe,  inventor  of  the  sewing-machine,  XXI.  718; 
sup.  1623. 

Alvan  Clark,  telescope-maker,  sup.  817. 

Cyrus  H.  McCormick,  inventor  of  the  reaping-machine, 
sup.  1945. 
14 


2IO  GUIDE   TO   THE    BRITANNICA. 

Thomas  A.  Edison,  inventor  of  many  electrical  ma- 
chines and  appliances,  sup.  1115. 

Alexander  Graham  Bell,  inventor  of  the  speaking-tele- 
phone, sup.  408. 

Isaac  Babbitt,  inventor  of  Babbitt  metal,  sup.  307. 

Henry  Bessemer,  "  Bessemer  steel,"  sup.  437. 

John  Ericsson,  inventor  of  the  Monitor,  sup.  1212. 

Oliver  Evans,  inventor  of  the  steam  road-carriage,  sup. 

1222. 

M.  W.  Baldwin,  inventor  of  locomotives,  sup.  325. 

Thaddeus  Fairbanks,  inventor  of  platform  scales,  sup. 
1237- 

FAMOUS   INVENTIONS. 

Gunpowder,  11.655;  XL  316;  VIII.  807;  first  use  of 
gunpowder,  II.  655. 

Firearms,  history  of,  II.  655;  ancient  guns,  II.  557; 
gun-making,  XL  278;  gunnery,  XL  297;  rifle,  XL  282; 
musket,  II.  558  ;  naval  cannon,  XVII.  286. 

Printing-presses,  sup.  1271;  type-setting  machines,  sup. 
1272;  XXIII.  700;  typewriters,  sup.  1516;  XXIV.  698. 

Air  ships.  See  the  article  Aeronautics,  I.  185,  and  par- 
ticularly the  supplementary  article  on  the  same  subject, 
sup.  55,  which  gives  an  account  of  the  latest  experiments 
and  discoveries.  Read  of  flying-machines  in  the  article 
Flight,  IX.  317;  and  of  balloons  in  III.  549,  and  I.  187. 

Air  compressors,  sup.  104. 

Air  engines,  I.  428. 

Anemometer,  sup.  184. 

Bells,  sup.  412. 

Brakes,  IV.  211  ;  railway  brake,  XX.  248;  sup.  547. 

Buttons,  IV.  598. 

Brushes  and  brooms,  IV.  403. 

Calico-printing  machines,  IV.  685. 


THE    INVENTOR.  211 

Calculating-machines,  sup.  651. 

Candle-making,  history  of,   IV.  802. 

Carriages,  history  of,  V.  134. 

Clocks,  VI.  13;  electrical  clocks,  VI.  25. 

Coloring-machines,  IV.  691. 

Compressed  air  for  driving  machinery,  sup.  104. 

Combs,  VI.  177. 

Cutlery,  VI.  733. 

Diving-bells,  VII.  294-300. 

The  eidoloscope,  sup.  1127. 

Elevators  (lifts),  XIV.  573;  sup.  1177. 

Ferris  wheel,  sup.  1261. 

Fire-extinguishing  apparatus,  IX.  235,  and  sup.  1273. 

Friction  matches,  invention  and  history  of,  XV.  624. 

Furniture,  IX.  847. 

Gramophone,  sup.  1437. 

Horseless  wagons,  sup.  296. 

Kinetograph,  sup.  1790. 

Kineto-phonograph,  and  kinetoscope,  sup.  1790. 

Locks,  XIV.  744. 

Lithography,  XIV.  697. 

Photo-lithography,  XVIII.  833. 

Microscope,  invention  of,  XVI.  258. 

Milling-machine,  sup.  2067. 

Mortising-machine,  sup.  2113. 

Mirrors,  XVI.  499;  magic  mirrors,  XVI.  501. 

Pens,  XVIII.  483. 

Pencils,  XVIII.  489. 

Phonograph,  invention  of,  XXIII.  130,  134. 

Photography,  XVIII.  821  ;  Daguerre's  invention  of,  VI. 
761  ;  Niepce's  inventions,  XVII.  495  ;  electric-flash  pro- 
cess, VIII.  636. 

Photogravures,  invention  of  process,  sup.  1235. 

Pneumatic-delivery  systems,  sup.  104. 


212  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Reaping-machines,  I.  322. 

Rings,  history  of,  XX.  560. 

Rope-making,  XX.  843. 

Sewing-machines,  XXI.  718. 

Slot  machines,  sup.  2730. 

Safety  lamp,  ¥1.487  ;  VI.  72,  and  XVI.  461. 

Spectacles,  XXII.  372,  and  XVI.  258. 

Steam  engine,  invention  of,  XXIV.  412  ;  description  of, 
XXII.  473. 

Steamships,  invention  of,  III.  542;  IX.  270,  and  XXII. 
478  ;  description  of,  XXI.  823. 

Stereoscopes,  XXII.  537. 

Stocking-frame,  XII.  299. 

Telegraph,  history  of,  XXIII.  112. 

Telephone,  history  of,  XXIII.  127;  description  of,  130. 

Telescope,  history  of,  XXIII.  135-139;  description  of, 

139-154. 

Twine-making,  XX.  845. 

Vitascope,  sup.  3057. 

Watch-making,  XXIV.  394. 

Water-tube  boilers,  sup.  509. 

Water  meter,  sup.  3101. 

Weaving,  XXIV.  463;  ancient  looms,  XXIII.  206; 
spinning-jenny,  II.  541,  and  VI.  490. 

Weighing-machines,  sup.  3116. 

This  list  might  be  continued  to  a  very  great  length,  but 
enough  has  been  given  to  indicate  the  very  complete  and 
comprehensive  manner  in  which  the  subject  of  inventions 
is  treated  in  the  Britannica. 

r 

SPECIAL   SUBJECTS. 

Now,  there  are  certain  special  subjects  with  which  al- 
most every  inventor  needs  to  have  some  acquaintance. 
One  man  will  want  to  know  all  about  the  most  recent  dis- 


THE    INVENTOR.  213 

coveries  in  electricity  ;  for  he  is  seeking  to  invent  some  new 
electrical  appliance,  or  to  make  some  improvement  on 
former  patents.  He  should  consult  the  references  men- 
tioned in  the  chapter  entitled  The  Electrician,  in  this 
GUIDE.  Another  inventor  will  find  it  necessary  to  inves- 
tigate the  phenomena  and  laws  of  HEAT.  Here  are  some 
references  that  may  be  helpful  to  him  : 

Special  article  on  Heat,  XI.  554. 

Theory  of  the  action  of  heat,  XIX.  2. 
Heat. 

Heat  as  energy,  VIII.  207. 

Latent  law  of  heat,  VIII.  731. 

Diffusion  of  heat,  VII.  207. 

Conduction  of  heat,  XX.  212. 

Convection  of  heat,  XX.  212. 

Power  of  heat  in  mechanics,  XV.  773. 

Production  of  heat  by  different  fuels,  IX.  807. 

Heat  of  coal  compared  with  that  of  oil,  XVIII.  240. 

Mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  VIIL  209. 

Transformation  of  heat  into  force,  XXIII.  283. 

A  third  inventor  will  want  to  understand  the  theory  and 

construction  of   MACHINES,  and  perhaps  also 

Mechanical   tne  general  laws  of  mechanics.      Let  such  an 

Laws.  one  consult  the  references  named  in  the  chap- 
ter entitled  The  Mechanic,  in  this  GUIDE.  A 
fourth  inventor  is  interested  in  such  subjects  as  the  air, 
gases,  etc.  He  will  find  the  Britannica  full  of  information 
of  just  the  sort  that  he  is  seeking.  For  example,  in  I.  427, 
there  is  a  brief  article  on  air,  with  references  to 

Atmosphere,  III.  28. 

Meteorology,  XVI.  1 14. 

Barometer,  III.  381. 

Pneumatics,  XIX.  240. 

Ventilation,  XXIV.  157. 

This  is  followed  by  an  interesting  account  of  the  air 


214  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

engine,  I.  428,  and  this  by  an  article  describing  the  air 
pump,  I.  429.  Then,  by  turning  to  the  Index  volume, 
one  may  find  scores  of  minor  references  to  various  items 
of  information  relating  to  this  particular  subject. 

In  short,  there  is  no  subject  connected  with  the  inven- 
tion of  machines,  or  of  useful  appliances  of  any  kind,  that 
does  not  receive  somewhere  in  the  Britannic  a  the  concise 
and  comprehensive  treatment  which  its  importance  de- 
mands. 

See  the  following  chapters  in  this  book  :  The  Engineer, 
The  Architect,  The  Builder,  The  Manufacturer,  The  Rail- 
road Man,  The  Fanner,  The  Printer,  The  Miner, 


THE   ARCHITECT. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE   ARCHITECT. 

"...     When  we  mean  to  build 
We  first  survey  the  plot,  then  draw  the  model." 

— 2  Henry  IV, 

"  If  a  man  read  little,  he  had    need    to  have  much  cunning  to  seem  to 
know  that  he  doth  not." — Lord  Bacon. 

THE  work  of  the  architect  is  closely  connected  with  that 
of  the  builder.  The  end  of  building,  merely  as  such,  is  con- 
venience or  use,  irrespective  of  appearance  ;  but 

the   end    of  architecture   is  so  to  arrange  the 
Definitions.       .  •   i  r 

plan,  masses,  and  enrichments  of  a  structure  as 

to  impart  to  it  interest,  beauty,  grandeur,  unity, 
power.     Building  is  a  trade  ;  architecture  is  an  art. 

The  Encyclop&dia  Britannica  is  a  mine  of  valuable  in- 
formation for  the  architect.     There  is  scarcely  any  ques- 
tion connected  with  the   practical  application  of  his  art 
that  does    not  receive  notice  and  discussion  somewhere 
within   its  pages.     The   history  of   architecture  is  treated 
with  special  fulness.     The  leading  article  on  this  subject 
(in  Volume  II.,  pp.  382-475)    is  a  very  complete  treatise 
embracing  as  much  matter  as  is  contained  in  an 
Leading     ordinary  I2mo  book  of  four  hundred  pages.    It 
Article,     js  enriched  with  eighteen   full-page  plates,  be- 
sides nearly  one  hundred  illustrations.    Follow- 
ing it  is  a  Glossary  of  Architectural  Terms  (especially  clas- 
sical and  mediaeval),  filling  sixteen  double-column  pages. 
A  supplementary  article  on  AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE, 


2l6  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

sup.  218,  contains  a  number  of  designs  and  plans  for  mod- 
ern dwelling-houses,  with  much  other  valuable  matter. 

The  following  are  among  the  numerous  subjects  of  in- 
terest which  the  architect  will  find  fully  described  or  ex- 
plained in  the  Britannica. 

Prehistoric  structures,  II.  383  ;  ancient  remains  at  Kar- 
nak,  V.  118,  XXI.  51  ;  Cromlechs,  VI.  597;  ancient  stone 
circle  at  Stonehenge,  XXII.  576;  tumuli,  III.  397;  lake- 
dwellings,  XIV.  222  ;  crannogs,  VI.  562. 

Egyptian  architecture,  II.  384;  pyramids,  XX.  122,  V. 
582;  sphinxes,  VII.  772  ;  the  Serapeum,  XXI.  674;  laby- 
rinth, VII.  774;  tombs,  VII.  781,  XVI.  865; 

temPles'  VIL  ?86- 

tecture  Jewish  architecture,  II.  392  ;  temple  of  Solo- 

mon, XXIII.  166;  of  Zerubbabel,  XXIII.  167; 
of  Herod,  XXIII.  168. 

Indian  architecture,  II.  394;  Taj  Mahal,  I.  286. 

Assyrian  architecture,  II.  397. 

Persian  architecture,  II.  399;  Persepolis,  XVIII.  557; 
Susa,  XXII.  722. 

Grecian  architecture,  II.  401  ;  remains  at  Mycenae,  II. 
346,  XVII.  115  ;  the  Caryatides,  11.407  ;  Choragic  monu- 
ments, II.  41 1. 

Three  orders  of  Grecian  architecture  (Doric,  Ionic,  and 
Corinthian),  II.  402;  Doric,  II.  409;  Ionic,  11.417;  Co- 
rinthian, II.  407,  IV.  709. 

Roman  architecture,  II.  414;  the  Pantheon,  XX.  828 ; 
Colosseum,  1.774;  dwellings  at  Pompeii,  11.420,  XIX. 
444. 

Pointed  architecture,  II.  422  ;  Gothic  architecture  in 
England,  II.  425  ;  in  France,  II.  429  ;  in  Germany,  II.  431  ; 
in  Spain,  II.  432  ;  in  Italy,  II.  434. 

Modern  Italian  architecture,  II.  436 ;  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome,  III.  415  ;  II.  438. 


THE    ARCHITECT.  2I/ 

Modern  English  architecture,  II.  442  ;  St.  Paul's  Ca- 
thedral, XIV.  837 ;  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  XXIV.  689, 
XVII.  442;  Ely  Cathedral,  VI II.  155. 

Saracenic  architecture,  II.  445  ;  mosques  of  Baghdad, 
III.  232  ;  of  Constantinople,  VI.  305  ;  great  mosque  at 
Damascus,  VI.  791  ;  at  Mecca,  XV.  672  ;  the  Alhambra, 
I.  570. 

Chinese  architecture,  IJ.  448. 

AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE,  sup.  218. 

Ancient  American  architecture,  II.  450. 

Present  position  of  architecture,  II.  452. 

Architecture  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  sup. 
3200. 

Richard  M.  Hunt,  sup.  1634. 

Henry  Hobson  Richardson,  sup.  2546. 

Richardson  and  his  work,  sup.  222. 

Among  the  large  number  of  special  subjects  relating  to 
practice  of  this  art,  the  following  will  be  found  both  valu- 
able and  interesting : 

Abacus,  I.  4. 
Special         Abbeys,  I.  10. 
Subjects.  Aisle,  I.  430. 

Almshouses,  II.  459. 

Apartment  houses,  sup.  202. 

Apse,  II.  215. 

Arcade,  II.  325. 

Arch,  II.  327. 

Architrave,  II.  459. 

Baluster,  II.  461. 

Baptistery,  III.  352. 

Basilica,  III.  412. 

Campanile,  IV.  753. 

Caryatides,  II.  407. 


218  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Cathedral,  V.  226. 
Chantry,  II.  462. 
Cloister,  VI.  35. 
Column,  II.  462. 
Coping,  IV.  464. 
Cornice,  II.  462. 
Cupola,  VII.  347. 
Dome,  VII.  347. 
Dormer  Window,  II.  463. 
Entablature,  II.  391. 
Fresco,  IX.  769. 
Monastery,  I.  10. 
Mosaic,  XVI.  849. 
Moulding  IV.  487. 
Parapet,  II.  469;   IX.  421. 

ARCHITECTURAL  ACHIEVEMENTS. 

St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  II.  438. 
St.  Paul's  in  London,  XIV.  837. 
York  Cathedral,  XXIV.  750. 

Cathedral  of  Geneva,  VIII.  154. 
Famous       The  Egyptian  Temples,  II.  388. 
Buildings.     The  Parthenon,  III.  5. 

The  Atrium,  III.  50. 
The  Colosseum,  I.  774. 
The  Hindoo  temples,  II.  395. 
Jain  Temple,  I.  423. 
The  Taj  Mahal,  I.  286. 

The  Grand  Mosque  and  the  Kaaba  of  Mecca,  XV  672 
TheBastile,  III.  429. 
Lara  Jongram,  IV.  214. 
Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa,  IV.  753. 
Pyramid  of  Gizeh,  XX.  124. 
The  Escorial,  VIII.  539. 


THE   ARCHITECT.  2IQ 

The  Labyrinth,  XIV.  179. 
The  Capitol  at  Washington,  sup.  219. 
For   additional    references,  see   the   following  chapter, 
entitled  The  Builder. 

BRIDGES,    FORTIFICATIONS,    ETC. 

For  references  to  articles  concerning  the  construction 
of  bridges,  fortifications,  etc.,  see  the  chapter  entitled  The 
Engineer,  in  this  GUIDE. 


22O  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

THE   BOlLDER. 

"  In  the  elder  days  of  art 
Builders  wrought  with  greatest  care, 
Each  minute  and  unseen  part, 
For  the  gods  see  everywhere." 

— Longfellow. 

THE  art  of  building  is  in  a  certain  sense  supplementary 

to  the  art  of  architecture.     In  its  highest   application  it 

may  very  properly  be  called  practical  architect- 

Practical      ure.    Building,  however,  is  frequently  employed 

when  the  result  is  not  architectural  ;  and  in  such 
lecture.  . 

case  it  is  the  exercise  ot  labor  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  a  certain  useful  end,  and  cannot  properly  be 
styled  an  art.  The  successful  builder  ought  to  possess  a 
scientific  knowledge  of  carpentry,  joinery,  masonry,  and 
all  other  trades  connected  with  building ;  and  he  should 
have  a  practical  understanding  of  the  fitness,  strength, 
durability,  and  resistance  of  all  kinds  of  materials.  The 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  offers  a  vast  amount  of  informa- 
tion on  all  these  subjects;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  library  of  useful 
knowledge  for  any  person  engaged  in  the  building  trades. 
The  special  article  on  BUILDING,  IV.  446-513,  is  in 
itself  a  complete  treatise  on  this  subject.  Each  of  the 
various  divisions  of  the  builder's  trade  is  considered  sepa- 
rately. 

MASON-WORK,  IV.  468. 

Brick,  history  and   manufacture   of,   IV.   279 ;    ancient 


THE   BUILDER.  221 

bricks,  XIX.  604,  619;  enameled  bricks,  VIII.  182; 
glazed  bricks  in  wall-linings,  XVII.  35  ;  brick  as  building 
material,  IV.  448  ;  strength  of  brick,  sup.  2799  ; 
Mason-  XXII.  603  ;  brick  facings  (Roman),  XX.  809. 

work.  Bricks  and  brick-making,  sup.  563,  describes 

the  most  improved  processes  now  in  use  in  the 
United  States. 

Briquette  machine,  sup.  573. 

Use  of  brick  in  combination  with  stone,  II.  457. 

Brick  architecture  in  Germany,  II.  432. 

Brick-laying,  IV.  460. 

Mortar,  XIV.  647 ;  how  mortar  is  made,  IV.  460. 

Calcination  of  lime,  XIII.  296. 

Quicklime,  XXI.  166. 

Building-stone,  IV.  448,  469,  and  sup.  614 ;  strength  of, 
sup.  2799;  XXII.  603. 

Granite,  XI.  48,  X.  230;  sandstone,  X.  237. 

Limestone,  X.  232. 

Marble,  XV.  528  ;  marble  veneer,  XVII.  36. 

Stone  cutting  and  dressing,  sup.  2794. 

Concrete,  VI.  243,  and  IV.  453. 

Plaster-work,  IV.  504. 

Cements,  V.  328. 

Portland  cement,  IV.  459. 

Hydraulic  cement,  XIV.  647. 

Stone-pavings,  IV.  473. 

Paving  in  bricks  and  tiles,  IV.  466. 

Paving-tiles,  XXIII.  389. 

Mason's  tools,  IV.  468. 

Scaffolding,  IV.  457,  468. 

Chimneys  and  flues,  IV.  466. 

Ventilation  by  chimneys,  XXIV.  159. 

Chimney-pieces,  IV.  473. 

Sewers  and  drains,  IV.  467. 


222  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

CARPENTER-WORK,  IV.  476. 

Carpentry  with  the  use  of  labor-saving  machinery,  sup. 

7Q7- 

Carpenter's  tools,  IV.  476. 

Flooring,  IV.  452,  482,  493. 

Partitions,  IV.  484. 

Timber,  IV.  448  ;  strength  of,  sup.  2799;  VII.  816,  and 
XXII.  603;  shrinkage,  IV.  486. 

Kinds  of  wood  used  for  finishing,  IV.  486  b. 
Carpenter-  Mouldings,  IV.  487. 

work.  Sawing,    XXI.    343,  XI.  437 ;   sawyer-work, 

IV.  476. 

Planing,  XI.  437;  XV.  155. 
Hanging  doors,  IV.  491. 
Windows,  X.  666  ;  IV.  493. 
Ventilation  by  windows,  XXIV.  160. 

ROOFER'S  WORK,  IV.  484,  and  VII.  347. 

Slate,  XXII.    127;  strength  of,  XXII.  603; 
slater's  work,  IV.  500. 

Shingles,  XXI.  346,  and  II.  473. 
Thatch,  IV.  501. 
Copper,  zinc,  and  tin  roofs,  IV.  503. 

PLUMBER'S  WORK,  IV.  502. 

Sanitary  conveniences  of  modern  houses,  sup.  2625. 

Sanitary  plumbing,  sup.  2402. 

Radiators  for  indoor  heating,  sup.  2489. 

Lead,  XIV.  374;  solder,  XXII.  249. 
Plumbing.         Lead-pipes  and  gutters,  IV.  502. 

Water-pipes,  XII.  484;  sup.  2403. 
Cesspools,  tanks,  and  water-closets,  IV.  468. 
House  drainage,  sup.  2403. 
Gas-fitting,  IV.  510. 


THE   BUILDER,  223 

PLASTERER'S  WORK,  IV.  504. 

PAINTER'S  AND  DECORATOR'S  WORK,  IV.  510- 

Plastering      Mural  decoratiori)  XVII.  34. 

PahuLig.      Stucco-work,  XVII.  36,  and  IV.  507. 

Paper-hangings,  IV.  512. 
Japanese  paper-hangings,  XIII.  591. 
See,  also,  Paints  or  Pigments,  XIX.  85. 
Body-color,  sup.  507. 

GLAZIER'S  WORK,  IV.  509. 

Glass,  X.  647 ;  window   glass,  X.  660 ;  plate 
glass,  X.  662. 
Glazmg-  Putty,  XX.  1 1 8. 

Lead-work,  IV.  509. 

Stained  glass,  X.  666,  667. 

Pavement  lights,  IV.  509. 

Many  other  articles  of  practical  value  to  the  builder 
will  be  suggested  to  him  from  time  to  time,  and  can  be 
found  by  reference  to  the  Index  volume  of  the  Bri- 
tannica. 

The  article  on  BUILDING  ASSOCIATIONS,  IV.  513,  and 
especially  that  on  loan  and  building  associations  in  the 
United  States,  sup.  611,  is  full  of  practical  information, 
not  only  for  the  builders,  but  for  all  owners  and  prospec- 
tive owners  of  houses. 

For  a  short  list  of  famous  buildings,  see  page  218  of 
this  GUIDE. 

See  also  the  chapters  entitled  The  Mechanic  and  The 
Engineer. 


224  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE   ENGINEER. 
"  Do  as  I  have  done — persevere." — George  Stephenson. 

ENGINEERING — the  art  of  designing  and  constructing 
works — embraces  a  very  wide  range  of  subjects,  and  the 
different  departments  into  which  the  profession  is  divided 
do  not  admit  of  very  strict  definition.  In  this  chapter  it 
is  proposed  to  indicate  a-  few  of  the  subjects  in  the  En- 
cyclopedia Britannica  which  have  relation  to  the  work  of 
the  civil  engineer.  Among  these  subjects  are  the  different 
branches  of  mathematics,  which  the  GUIDE  has  already 
mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject.  To  these  may 
be  added  the  articles : 

Surveying,  XXII.  695,  and 

Geodesy,  X.  163. 

Both  of  these,  aside  from  the  purely  techni- 
cal and   mathematical  portions  of  which  they 
Surveying.  ' 

are  largely  composed,  contain  much  matter  of 

interest  and  practical  value.  (See  also  Stadia 
measurement,  sup.  2774.)  Of  other  articles  there  are 
many,  but  it  is  necessary  here  to  name  only  a  few  as  ex- 
amples of  the  quality  of  instruction  and  information  to  be 
derived  from  the  Britannica. 

Bridges,  IV.  284-341,  is  a  very  comprehensive  article,  with 
numerous  diagrams  and  illustrations.  A  supplementary 
article  on  the  same  subject,  sup.  564,  contains  an  alphabeti- 


THE   ENGINEER  225 

cal  list  of  the  principal  bridges  in  the  world,  with  descrip- 
tive notes  on  those  which  are  of  the  most  recent 
construction.  Many  of  these  famous  bridges  are 
described  in  separate  articles,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing are  examples : 

Brooklyn  Bridge,  XVII.  465. 

Forth  Bridge,  XX.  234. 

St.  Louis  Bridge,  XXI.  185,  etc. 

Laws  governing  the  erection  of  bridges,  sup.  568. 
Caissons  (used  in  bridge-building),  IV.  647. 
River  engineering,  XX.  571. 

River  engineering  on  the  Mississippi,  XVI.  520  ;  James 
B.  Eads,  sup.  1104. 

Engineering  at  Hell  Gate,  sup.  1561. 
Embankment,  VIII.  158. 

Aqueducts,  II.  219  (chiefly  interesting  on  account  of 
the  history  which  it  contains  of  ancient  aqueducts).  The 
modern  methods  of  constructing  aqueducts  and  tunnels 
are  fully  described  in  sup.  211.  See  also 

Railway  tunnels,  XX.  233. 

Tunneling,  XXIII.  622. 

St.  Gotthard  tunnel,  XXIII.  624. 

Sutro  tunnel,  XVII.  368  ;  sup.  2835. 

Viaducts,  sup.  3038. 

Waterworks,  XXIV.  406  (with  chapters  on 
Water-  reservoir  dams,  conveyance,  purification,  stor- 
works.  age,  and  distribution). 

Waterworks  of  London,  XIV.  825. 
Of  Paris,  XVIII.  279. 
Of  New  York,  XVII.  465. 
Of  Glasgow,  X.  642. 
15 


226  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Coffer-dams,  VI.  114. 

Canals,  IV.  782-794  (with  diagrams  and  illustrations). 
History    of   canals    and  canal    construction, 

sup.  677-683. 
Canals.  £      ' '         J.    ____ 

Suez  Canal,  XX.  620. 

Panama  Canal,  XVIII.  209. 
M.  de  Lesseps,  sup.  1867. 

Harbors,  XL  455-465  (with  numerous  dia- 
grams).  Supplementary  article  relating  spe- 
cially to  the  harbors  and  docks  of  the  United 
States,  sup.  1520. 

United  States  Coast  Survey,  sup.  848. 
Docks,  XI.  465-472. 

Roads,  XX.  582 ;  construction  of  roads,  page  582 ; 
stone  pavements,  page  584;  wood  paving,  page  583;  as- 
phalt paving,  page  586. 

Telford  road,  XXIII.  155. 

Macadam,  the  Scotch  road-maker,  XX.  582, 

583. 

James  Nasmyth,  sup.  2138. 

Railways  (see  chapter  entitled  The  Railroad  Man,  in 
this  GUIDE). 

Lighthouses,  XIV.  615. 

The  Eddystone  tower,  page  615. 

Light-  Other  famous  lighthouses,  page  616  ;  modes 

houses.       of  construction,  page  617. 

Beacons  and  buoys,  page  625. 

Irrigation,  XIII.  362  ;  sup.  99  and  1707. 
Sewerage,  construction  of  sewers,  XXI.  713. 
Sewerage,  of  London,  XIV.  826. 
Of  Paris,  XVIII.  280. 


THE   ENGINEER.  22/ 

Fortifications,  IX.  421-468  (a  comprehensive  treatise, 
illustrated  with  numerous  diagrams  and  plates).     Espe- 
cially interesting,  even  to  non-scientific  readers, 
Fortifica-     is  the  history  of   improvements  in  permanent 
tion.         fortifications,  pages  440-442,  and  the  chapter  on 
the  fortification  of  capitals,  page  466.     So  also 
is  the  account  of  the  siege  of  the  citadel  of  Antwerp,  IX. 
458,  and  of  the  defense  of  Dantzic,  IX.  458. 

Other  valuable  articles  are  such  as  the  following : 
Engineering  Societies  of  the  U.  S.,  sup.  1202. 
Societies  of  Engineers,  XXII.  226. 
Amalgamated  Society  of  Engineers,  XXIII.  50. 

Naval  Engineers,  duties  of,  XVII.  95. 
Miscella-    Royal  Engineers  in  the  British  Army,  II.  579. 
neous.       Strength  of  materials,  XXII.  592. 

Eiffel  tower,  sup.  1128. 
Gunnery,  XI.  297. 
Artillery,  II.  655. 
Telegraphy,  XI.  632. 
Shipbuilding,  XXI.  809. 

See,  also,  the  chapters  entitled  The  Builder,    The  Sea- 
man, and  The  Machinist,  in  this  GUIDE. 


228  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

THE   LABORER. 

"  All  true  work  is  sacred ;  in  all  true  work,  were  it  but  true  hand-labor, 
there  is  something  of  divineness."  —  Thomas  Carlyle. 

"  Whatsoever  thy  hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy  might." — Eccle- 
siastes. 

NEARLY  every  chapter  in  this  GUIDE  is  addressed  to  the 
laborer  in  one  or  another  division  of  the  world's 
Who  are  industries.  The  man  who  works  with  his  brain 
Laborers  ?  is  no  less  a  laborer  than  he  who  toils  with  his 
hands.  Hence  the  teacher,  the  lawyer,  the 
banker,  are  as  truly  laborers  as  the  mechanic,  the  builder, 
the  farmer,  the  worker  on  the  roads,  the  employee  of  the 
mill  or  the  factory.  "  The  life  of  man  in  this  world," 
says  Samuel  Smiles,  "  is  for  the  most  part  a  life  of  work. 
In  the  case  of  ordinary  men,  work  may  be  regarded  as 
their  normal  condition.  Every  man  worth  calling  a  man 
should  be  willing  and  able  to  work.  The  honest  laboring 
man  finds  work  necessary  for  his  sustenance,  but  it  is 
equally  necessary  for  men  of  all  conditions  and  in  every 
relationship  of  life.  .  .  .  Labor  is  indeed  the  price  set 
upon  everything  which  is  valuable.  Nothing  can  be 
accomplished  without  it." 

In  the  present  chapter  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  GUIDE  to 
point  out  some  of  the  many  articles  and  other  passages  in 
the  Encyclopedia  Britannlca  that  may  be  of  general  interest 
to  all  classes  of  workingmen,  and  especially  to  those  who 
labor  with  their  hands.  The  history  of  labor  is  identical 
with  the  history  of  civilization,  for  without  the  one  the 


THE   LABORER.  22Q 

other  could  not    exist.      Workingmen  of  the  present  day 

may  learn  much  that  is  both  interesting   and 

History  of     instructive  by  studying  the  conditions  of  labor 

Labor.        in  former  times  and  in   other  countries.     The 

Britannica    affords    ample    facilities    for    such 

study.     See,  for  example,  the  following  articles  or  parts  of 

articles : 

Labor  in  early  times,  I.  294;  XIV.  165. 

Slavery,  XXII.  129. 

Labor  in  England  in  the  Middle  Ages,  XIV.  166. 

Day-laborers  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  XIV.  169. 

Labor  laws  in  Great  Britain,  XIV.  171. 

The  factory  system,  sup.  2837. 

Apprenticeship,  II.  212  ;  IX.  760. 

Guilds,  XI.  259;  of  London,  XIV.  819. 

The  following  articles  will  be   found  of  greater  or  less 
interest  to  the  different  classes  of  workingmen  everywhere  : 

Labor  and  Capital,  XXIV.  48. 
Labor  and     Labor  and  Wages,  XXIV.   306. 
Capital.       Labor  and  Wealth,  XXIV.  461. 

Labor  and  Socialism,  XXII.  206,  211. 
Labor  and  Communism,  VI.  217. 
The  Sweating  system,  sup.  2836. 

Capital,  V.  71. 

Capital  and  Socialism,  XXII.  206,  211. 

Theories  concerning  capital,  XIX.  374. 

Wages,  XXIV.  306;  XIV.  165. 

Wages  in  the  United  States,  sup.  3066. 
Wages.      Payment  of  wages,  XVIII.  440. 

Lassalle's  theory  of  wages,  XIV.  321. 
Marx's  theory  of  wages,  XXII.  211. 


230  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Enfranchisement  of  the  working  classes,  XIX.  352. 
Progress  of  the  working  classes,  XXIV.  312. 
Legal  relations  of  workingmen  and   employers,  XIV. 
170. 

Mechanics'  Institutes,  III.  779. 
Industrial  condition  of  women,  sup.  1672. 

Trade  guilds  and  wages,  XXIV.  310. 

Unions  of  workingmen,  XXIII.  499. 

American  Workingmen's  Organizations,  sup. 
Labor  Or-      1814. 

ganizations.       Trade  Unions  in  the  United  States,  XXIII. 
786. 

American  Federation  of  Labor,  sup.  153. 

Knights  of  Labor,  sup.  1814. 

Ancient  Order  of  United  Workmen,  sup.  177. 

Trade  Unions  in  England,  II.  213. 

Workingmen's  International  Association,  XIII.  189. 

Strikes,  XXIII.  500. 

Recent  great  strikes  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2995. 

Boycotting,  sup.  539. 

Co-operation,  V.  338. 

Mutual  Benefit  Societies  in  the  United  States,  sup.  417. 

Mutual  Benefit  Orders,  IX.  782. 

Building  and  Loan  Associations,  sup.  611. 

Agricultural  cooperation,  I.  416. 

Farmers'  Organizations,  sup.  1245. 

International  Typographical  Union,  sup.  1814. 

American  Railway  Union,  sup.  1817,  2996. 

Labor  Parties  in  the  United  States,  1817. 

United  Mine-workers  of  America,  sup.  2995. 

Coxey's  "  Commonweal  Army,"  sup.  2997. 


THE   FARMER.  231 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

THE   FARMER. 

"Life  in  the  country  is  full  of  practical  teachings,  which  richer  folk 
are  apt  sedulously  to  deny  to  their  children." — A  Sussex  Idyl. 

"Compare  the  state  of  that  man,  such  as  he  would  be  without  books, 
with  what  that  man  may  be  with  books." — Lord  Houghton. 

FARMER  A  and  Farmer  B  are  neighbors.  Their  lands 
join,  and  each  has  the  same  number  of  acres.  Twenty 
years  ago,  when  they  entered  upon  these  lands,  they 
seemed  to  be  on  an  equal  footing  in  everyway.  It  would 
have  puzzled  an  expert  to  tell  which  of  the 
A  Common  farms  had  the  best  soil,  or  which  was  the  most 
Illustration,  favorably  situated  for  the  purposes  of  agricul- 
ture. Both  men  were  industrious,  although 
everybody  said  that  Farmer  B  was  the  harder  worker  of 
the  two.  Yet,  from  the  very  start,  Farmer  A  had  always 
the  best  success.  His  crops  were  better,  the  products  of 
his  farm  were  of  a  finer  quality,  he  had  fewer  losses  and 
fewer  expenses,  and,  in  short,  everything  prospered  with 
him.  But  Farmer  B,  in  spite  of  all  his  industry,  fell  con- 
stantly behind.  His  lands  became  less  and  less  fertile 
every  year.  His  crops  failed,  his  stock  died,  every  enter- 
prise seemed  to  end  in  disappointment-or  disaster. 

Now,  how  can  we  account  for  the  difference  in  the  for- 
tunes of  these  two  men  ?  We  cannot  explain  it  by  say- 
ing that  one  was  born  to  good  luck  and  the  other  to 
misfortune.  It  is  to  be  explained  in  this  way  :  Farmj 


3*n 


232  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

spared  no  pains  to  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  his 

calling.     He  was  a  reader  of  books,  and  through  them  he 

availed  himself  of  the  experience  of  others  in 

every  department  of  agriculture.  On  the  other 
Educated  f  ~  .  , 

Farmer         hand,  rarmer  B  placed  his  entire  dependence 

upon  industry  alone  ;  and,  in  the  conduct  of  his 
business,  he  had  only  his  own  narrow  experience  to  guide 
him. 

The  day  of  guesswork  in  farming  has  passed.  In  every 
detail  of  the  farmer's  calling  knowledge  counts  for  gain. 
Other  things  being  equal,  the  land-worker  who  keeps 
abreast  of  the  times  has  an  immense  advantage  over  him 
who  is  content  to  plod  along  in  the  footsteps  of  his  an- 
cestors. 

To  the  progressive  farmer,  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
is  a  mine  of  useful  knowledge.  Containing  information 
of  the  most  thorough  and  trustworthy  kind  concerning 
every  department  of  his  business,  it  proves  itself  to  be  a 
ready  helper  and  adviser  on  all  occasions. 

The  article  on  AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
sup.  89-101,  is  the  work  of  Hon.  J.  Sterling  Morton, 
Secretary  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  of 
Charles  W.  Dabney,  Jr.,  both  of  whom  rank  among 
the  highest  living  authorities  on  this  subject.  It  is  an 
article  of  great  practical  value,  giving  just  that  kind  of 
information  which  every  intelligent  farmer  in  this  country 
wishes  to  have.  The  historical  portion  is  particularly 
interesting,  while  the  statistics  relative  to  United  States 
farms  present  many  facts  that  are  worth  knowing.  The 
chapters  on  crops,  sup.  91,  et  seq.,  contain  much'  material 
for  thought,  and  are  full  of  good  suggestions. 

The  general  article  on  AGRICULTURE,  I.  291-416,  is 
a  comprehensive  treatise,  covering  125  pages,  in  which 
every  farmer  will  find  much  that  is  both  interesting  and 


THE   FARMER.  233 

profitable.  Although  it  may  be  said  to  present  the  sub- 
ject from  an  English  point  of  view,  it  is  nevertheless  replete 
with  that  sort  of  information  which  farmers  everywhere 
appreciate.  To  the  curious  farmer,  who  would  like 
to  know  how  the  work  of  his  craft  was  done  in  olden 

times,  the  chapter  on  Ancient  Husbandry,  I. 
Farming  291-295,  will  be  full  of  interest.  The  relative 
General  advantages  of  "  Small  Farming  "  and  "  Large 

Farming"  are  discussed  in  I.  411-412,  and 
XIV.  268.  Truck-farming  in  the  United  States  is  de- 
scribed in  sup.  94 ;  and  this  introduces  us  to  a  highly 
interesting  article  on  LAND,  its  ownership,  distribution, 
etc.,  XIV.  259-271. 

An  article  on  HOMESTEADS,  XII.  122,  contains  com- 
plete information  concerning  the  Homestead  Law  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  preemption  of  claims  on  Gov- 
ernment lands,  XII.  123  b".  Still  later  facts  in  regard  to 
the  same  subject  are  given  in  the  article  on  Public  Lands 
of  the  United  States,  sup.  2472.  The  chapter  on  the  SUR- 
VEYS OF  PUBLIC  LANDS  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2990, 
presents  much  valuable  information.  The  farm-seeker 
who  finds  it  necessary  to  lease,  instead  of  buying,  or 
otherwise  becoming  the  owner  of  his  farm,  will  obtain 

many    practical    hints     from    the    article    on 
Land  LANDLORD    AND  TENANT,  XIV,  272-278.      He 

Owning.      will  be  interested,  too,  in  reading  the  chapter 

on  Tenure  of  Land,  I.  406  b",  and  the  article 

on  Rent,  XX.  402.     The  land  owner  will  also  find  many 

things  of  interest  in  these  articles,  and  he  will  want  to 

read    still    more    of   the    history   of   land    ownership   in 

AGRARIAN  LAWS,  I.  287  a. 

Buildings.         The  chapter  on  Farm  Buildings;  I.  308,  will 

save  many  a  farmer  much  more  than  the  cost 

of  an  Encyclopedia;  that  on  Fences,  I.  309,  is  also  replete 


234  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

with  valuable  suggestions.     Not   many  farmers  have  to 
build  bridges,  but  such  as  do  will  find  something  of  inter- 
est to   them  in  sup.  564.     The  building  of  fruit-houses  is 
described  in  XII.  223  a",  and  of  plant-houses  in  XII.  22ia". 
Next  to  the  subject   of  buildings,  that  of  implements 
and  tools  is  of   importance   to    every   farmer. 
These  are  described  in  detail  and  at  length  in 
the  chapter  on  Machines  and  Implements  of 
Husbandry,  I.  311-328.     See,  also, 
Harvesting  Machinery,  sup.  1538. 
Corn-harvesters,  sup.  1542. 
American  plows,  sup.  2402. 
American  threshing-machinery,  sup.  2905. 
Improved  straw-stacker,  sup.  2907. 

The  successful  farmer  must  also  know  something  about 

soils.     He  will  find  this  subject  treated  in  a  general  way 

in  I.  306;  the  chemistry  of  soils  is  noticed  in 

XIV.  567  b" ;  the  soils   best  suited  for  gardens 

in  XII.  217,  232  ;  while  the  manner  in  which 

different  kinds  of  soils  were  originally  produced 

is  described  briefly  in  X.  265. 

Closely  connected  with  the  latter  subject  is  that  of  fer- 
tilizers.    Read    what    is  said    of    Fertilizers,    I.    231;    of 
Manures,  I.  342,  and  XII.  232  ;  of  the  value  of 

Bone   Manure,  I.  347;  of  Lime,  1.350;  and  of 
Fertilizers.       .      .,    .    .  ^T  T  _, 

Artificial  Manures,  I.   353.      Then   turn  to  the 

special  and  very  valuable  article  on  MANURES, 
XV.  505-512,  and  to  that  on  Guano,  XI.  233. 

In   some  parts  of  the    country  irrigation    is 

necessary  to  the  production  of  crops.  '  Farmers 

in  such  sections  will  find  it  profitable  to  read  the 

general  article  on  IRRIGATION,  XIII.  362,  and 

perhaps  also  that  which  is  said  about  irrigation  by  sewage, 

XXI.  512.    The  very  latest  facts  regarding  irrigation  in  the 


THE   FARMER.  235 

United  States  are  given  in  sup.  99,  and  sup.  1707.  It  will 
also  be  interesting  to  read  about  the  curious  methods  of 
irrigation  practiced  in  other  countries.  For  instance,  the 
methods  pursued  in  Egypt,  VII.  707  ;  in  Arabia,  II.  244  a  ; 
in  India,  XII.  754  ;  and  in  Spain,  XXII.  299. 

After  soils,  and  the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  crops 
(see  I.  328-340),  we  come  to  the  crops  themselves.  The 
supplementary  article  on  Wheat  in  America,  sup.  3134,  is 
particularly  valuable.  A  long  and  valuable  article  on 
WHEAT,  XXIV.  531,  is  also  worthy  of  every 
farmer's  attention.  Indian  corn  is  described 
under  the  head  of  MAIZE,  XV.  309.  An  in- 
teresting history  of  the  potato  is  given  in  the 
general  article  Potato,  XIX.  594,  while  specific  directions 
as  to  its  culture  are  to  be  found  in  XII.  286  a.  The  dis- 
eases of  the  potato  are  described  in  XIX.  596,  while  the 
history  and  nature  of  the  potato-bug  are  given  in  VI.  134  a. 
Passing  now  to  other  grains  and  vegetables,  you  will  find 
each  treated  in  its  appropriate  place — for  example :  Bar- 
ley, III.  376,  and  sup.  355  ;  Oats,  XVII.  696;  Flax,  IX. 
293  ;  Hemp,  XI.  647. 

The  special  article  on  COTTON,  VI.  482,  is  interesting 
and  exhaustive.  The  chapters  on  Cottons  in  the  United 
States,  sup.  93,  2990,  present  the  very  latest  statistics  con- 
cerning this  industry.  For  further  information  concerning 
the  growth  of  cotton  in  the  United  States,  see  X.  435  and 
XXIII.  824.  See,  also,  the  reference  to  textile  fabrics  in 
this  GUIDE,  in  the  chapter  entitled  The  Manufacturer. 

Growers  of  rice  will  turn  to  XX.  538,  and  they  will  also 
find  pleasure  in  reading  how  this  grain  is  cultivated  in 
various  countries — in  India  III.  248,  568  ;  in  Japan,  XIII. 
574;  in  Java,  XIII.  603  ;  and  in  Madagascar,  XV.  172. 

The  culture  of  tobacco  in  the  United  States  receives 
due  attention  in  sup.  94,  in  XIV.  43,  and  in  XXIV.  260. 


236  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Interesting  facts  concerning  the  history  and  nature  of 
the  weed  are  given  in  the  general  article  on  TOBACCO, 
XXIII.  424. 

Other  farm  products  are  the  subjects  of  valuable 
articles. 

Broom-corn,  sup.  585. 

Buckwheat,  sup.  607. 

The  farmer  who  cares  for  statistics  relative  to  the  pro- 
duction of  FARM  PRODUCTS,  will  find  a  great 

deal  of  trustworthy  information  in  the  article 
Statistics.  .  .  .  n  .  .  , 

on  Agriculture,  sup.  89,  as  well  as  in  the  chapter 
on  Agriculture  in  the  United  States,  XXIII. 
824-829. 

Has   the  farmer   any   enemies  ?     Yes,  many  of  them ; 
and  the  successful  agriculturist  will  arm  himself  against 
them  by  becoming  acquainted  with  their  character  and 
habits.     The  article  on  INSECTS  AND  INSECTI- 
CIDES, XIII.  904,  will  be  found  to  be  of  great 
Insects.  ,0        i  MI  ^ 

practical  value.     So  also  will  the  chapters  on 

the  Army  Worm,  sup.  241  ;  the  various  prac- 
tical recipes  for  insecticides,  sup.  1684.  If  you  would  rec- 
ognize a  friend  also,  read  what  is  said  of  the  ICHNEUMON 
FLY,  XII.  699.  It  might  be  well,  too,  to  read  about  the 
TRICHINA,  XXIV.  206.  Vine-growers  will  find  several 
matters  of  practical  interest  in  the  section  relating  to  the 
diseases  of  the  vine,  XXIV.  238. 

There  is  a  still  further  endless  variety  of  topics  which 
will  claim  the  attention  of  the  successful  farmer.     If  he  is 
interested    in    the   production    of  ha^,  he  will 
Miscella-     want  to  read  the  articles  on  GRASSES,  XL  53, 
neous.        and  sup.  1305.    If  he  cares  for  honey,  he  will  see 
what  is  said  about  BEES,  III.  484  ;  about  apia- 
rian products,  sup.  99;  about  HONEY,  XII.  138,  139,  and 


THE   FARMER.  237 

about  Bee  Industry,  sup.  398.  If  he  has  more  apples 
than  he  can  eat  or  sell,  he  will  learn  all  about  ClDER,  V. 
775  ;  if  he  owns  chickens  or  ducks  or  geese,  he  will  want 
to  know  how  to  make  them  profitable,  and  will  read  the 
article  on  POULTRY,  XIX.  644.  In  fact,  the  number  of 
subjects  of  this  kind  is  so  large  that  it  is  impossible  here 
to  enumerate  them. 

And  now,  Mr.  Farmer,  are  you  a  gardener  or  a  fruit- 
grower? Turn  to  the  next  two  chapters  in  this  book, 
and  notice  the  references  which  are  given 
Further  there.  You  may  not  be  a  stock  raiser,  in  the 
References,  strictest  meaning  of  the  word ;  but  we  know 
that  you  want  to  have  the  best  breeds  of  horses 
and  cattle  and  swine,  and  in  the  care  of  them  to  avail 
yourself  of  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  others.  And 
so  we  refer  you  to  the  chapter  entitled  the  Stock  Raiser, 
in  this  GUIDE.  In  that  chapter  also  you  will  find  numer- 
ous references  to  articles  relating  to  milk,  butter,  cheese, 
etc.,  and  the  most  approved  and  profitable  methods  of 
conducting  a  dairy. 

Are  you  interested  in  what  farmers  are  doing  in  other 

countries?     Do  you  want  to  know  what  kind  of  soil  they 

have,  what  grains  they  raise,  what  implements 

Farming       they  use  ?     Do  you  care  to  learn  about  their 

Countries      m°des  of  living,  or  about  the  profits  which  they 

derive  from  their  labor  ?     You  will  find  just 

such  information  in  the  Britannica.     Look  under  the  head 

of  the  country  which  you  have  in  mind.     For  example,  you 

will  find 

Agriculture  in  Austria,  III.  119. 

Agriculture  in  Afghanistan,  I.  232. 

Agriculture  in  Arabia,  II.  244. 

And  so  with  almost  every  country  in  the  world. 

Are  you  interested  in  the  present  trend  of  American 


238  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

agriculture  ?  Of  course  you  are.  See  what  Secretary 
Morton  says  on  that  subject  in  sup.  100.  Read  also  the 
brief  account  which  follows  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture at  Washington. 

Are  you  interested  in  cooperation  with  others  of  your 

calling?     Read  what  is  said  about  FARMERS' 

Coopera-      ORGANIZATIONS,  sup.  1245;  about  agricultural 

tion.  cooperation,    I.    416;    about    Cooperation    in 

general,  VI.  339;    and  about    communities  in 

Europe  and  America,  VI.  218,  219.     See,  also,  the  article 

on  World's  Fairs,  sup.  3195. 

Nearly  all  enlightened  nations  recognize  the  importance 
of  scientific  instruction  in  the  practice  of  agriculture.  In 
Europe  there  were  several  agricultural  colleges  nearly  a 
hundred  years  ago.  In  Germany  there  are  scores  of  insti- 
tutions in  successful  operation  wherein  the  sons 
TheEduca-  of  farmers  are  instructed  in  the  best  methods  of 
Farmers  cultivating  the  soil.  There  are  also  many  such 
schools  in  Belgium,France,  and  England,  and  the 
result  is  that  the  lands  in  those  countries  produce  almost 
double  the  amount  per  acre  raised  before  their  establish- 
ment. In  the  United  States,  where  less  attention  has  been 
paid  to  this  branch  of  education,  the  annual  crops  are 
almost  everywhere  growing  less  per  acre.  It  was  not  until 
1862  that  the  first  national  movement  was  made  towards 
the  establishment  of  Agricultural  Colleges  An  article  in 
sup.  86  gives  a  complete  history  and  description  of  the 
farmers'  colleges  now  in  operation  in  this  country.  Closely 
connected  with  these  colleges  are  the  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations,  of  which  one  or  more  have  been  established 
in  every  state.  These  stations  are  intended  to  promote, 
under  Government  auspices,  the  methodical  study  of  the 
farmers'  problems,  and  they  are  very  fully  described  in 
sup.  87-89.  The  relations  of  the  Government  and  its 


THE  FARMER.  239 

agricultural  stations  to  the  farmer  are  very  aptly  stated  in 
sup.  100.  The  chapter  on  the  Education  of  Farmers,  I. 
408,  is  well  worth  reading  in  this  connection,  presenting 
as  it  does  some  valuable  thoughts  from  an  English  point 
of  view.  As  to  the  manner  in  which  many  American 
farmers  try  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times,  see  Farmers'  In- 
stitutes, sup.  1245. 

Here,  then,  we  have  indicated  enough  reading  to  occupy 
your  leisure  moments  for  many  a  day.  And  as  you  pursue 
the  study  of  these  subjects,  other  topics  will  naturally  fall 
under  your  eye,  arid  you  will  see  how  inexhausti- 
ble is  the  fund  of  knowledge  before  you.     Can 

Conclusion.  , 

any  one  now  pretend  to  say  that  the  farmer 
who  has  made  this  knowledge  his  own  will  not 
be  vastly  more  successful  in  all  the  departments  of  his 
calling  than  his  neighbor  whose  information  is  limited  to 
that  which  he  has  acquired  through  personal  experience 
alone  ?  The  Encyclopedia  Britannica  is  a  farmer's  library 
in  itself,  covering  every  division  of  agricultural  lore ;  and 
its  articles,  being  the  work  of  specialists,  are  not  only 
complete  and  comprehensive,  but  in  the  highest  degree 
trustworthy  and  authoritative. 

See  the  chapter  in  this  GUIDE  entitled  The  Woodsman. 


240  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

THE   GARDENER. 

"  He  that  lives  in  his  own  fields  and  the  habitation  which  God  hath 
given  him,  enjoys  true  peace.  Nothing  should  hinder  him  from  the 
pleasure  of  books." — Antonio  de  Guevara,  1540. 

As  a  matter  of  course  the  gardener's  interests  are,  to  a 
large  extent,  identical  with  those  of  the  farmer.  Every 
successful  gardener  must  know  a  good  deal  about  soils, 
fertilizers,  the  preparation  of  the  ground,  implements  and 
farm  machinery,  and  many  other  subjects  connected  with 
that  larger  branch  of  agriculture  generally  called  farming. 
And  so,  Mr.  Gardener,  if  you  have  come  to  that  store- 
house of  knowledge,  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  for  in- 
formation which  will  help  you  in  the  practice  of  your  call- 
ing, we  would  advise  you  to  turn  to  some  of  the  articles 
which  we  have  just  named  in  the  chapter  for  the  guidance 
of  the  farmer.  When  you  have  obtained  such  information 
as  you  wish  upon  the  subjects  therein  mentioned,  you  will 
be  all  the  more  ready  to  profit  by  the  courses  of  reading 
and  reference  which  are  now  to  follow. 

The  general  article  on  HORTICULTURE,  XII.  211-295, 

will  of  course  claim  your  first  attention.     This   is  a  very 

comprehensive  chapter,  and  contains  as  much 

Gardening     matter  as  an  ordinary  I2mo  volume  of  three 

General       hundred  and  fifty  pages.     Some  portions  of  the 

article  may  be  of   greater  value  to    you   than 

others.     Turn  to  the  Index  on  page  295,  and  see  what  it 

contains  that  is  of  special  interest  to  you. 

The  chapter  on  the  Formation  and  Preparation  of  the 


THE   GARDENER.  241 

Garden,  XII.  217,  contains  some  valuable,  practical  hints. 
That  on  Garden  Tools,  XII.  233  b  ;  that  on  Plant-houses, 
XII.  221  a;  and  that  on  the  Propagation  of  Plants,  XII. 
234  b,  will  also  be  found  rich  in  suggestiveness  and  in  di- 
rect information. 

Is  yours  a  flower  garden  ?     Read  the  chapter  on   the 

Flower   Garden,  XII.    247;    that   on    Kinds    of    Flowers 

to    Cultivate,  XII.    248 ;  that    on    Greenhouse 

The  Flower  Plants,  XII.  261  ;  and  the  chapter  on  Pruning, 

Garden.      XII.   241.     The    article    on    Floriculture,    sup. 
1290,  contains  a  number  of  interesting   statis- 
tics concerning  the  progress  of  this  industry  in  the  United 
States,  and  will  be  read  with  profit  by  every  florist. 

The  following  articles  and  parts  of  articles  are  worthy, 
as  you  will  at  once  perceive,  of  the  attention  of  every 
gardener  and  of  every  lover  of  flowers. 

History  of  the  first  attempts  at  the  classification  of 
plants,  IV.  79  a. 

The  story  of  Linnaeus,  XIV.  671,  and  his  classification 
of  plants,  IV.  79  b. 

The  account  of  Robert  Brown,  the  inventor  of  the  natu- 
ral system  of  classification,  IV.  81  a",  and  IV.  385. 

The  chapter  on  Structural  Elements  of  Plants,  IV.  83. 

The  special  articles  on  the  ROSE,  XX.  850. 

Then  there  are  innumerable  special  articles  on  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  flowers,  all  of  which  may  be  found  by  ref- 
erence to  the  Index  volume.  Among  these  articles  it 
may  not  be  amiss  to  call  attention  to  the  following : 

Lily,  XIV.  643 

Gladiolus,  X.  632. 

Geranium,  X.  439. 

Dahlia,  VI.  763. 

Pansy,  XVIII.  214. 

Phlox,  XVIII.  798. 
16 


242  GUIDE   TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 

Honeysuckle,  XII.  140. 
Hollyhock,  XII.  102. 
Hyacinth,  XII.  419. 
Mignonette,  XVI.  289. 

But  it  is  unnecessary  to  name  more.  These  are  men- 
tioned only  as  examples  of  many  articles  which  lovers  of 
flowers  will  take  pleasure  in  finding  and  reading. 

There  are  articles  on  wild-flowers,  too,  such  as  Ranuncu- 
lus (buttercup),  XX.  272 ;  Violet,  XXIV.  241  ;  Daisy,  VI. 
773  ;  and  scores  of  others.     And  in  the  general 
Wild          article   on    BOTANY,    IV.    79,    their   structure, 
Flowers.        habits,  and  growth  are  treated  and  described 

from  a  scientific  standpoint. 

If  you  are  interested  in  Landscape  Gardening,  see  the 

article  on  that  subject  in  sup.  1828,  also  the  article  on 

LAWNS,  XXI.  248,  and  that  on  the  parks  of  the 

Landscape     United  States,  sup.  2296.     See  William  Kent, 

Gardening.     XIV.  40. 

Some  curious  historical  facts  in  relation  to 
the  subject  may  be  found  by  reference  to  the  article  Laby- 
rinth, XIV.  1 80.  The  article  ARBORICULTURE  will  also 
supply  some  useful  hints ;  and  the  account  of  the  Royal 
Botanical  Gardens  at  Kew,  XII.  153,  and  sup.  1785,  will 
be  found  interesting. 

The  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  is  described  in  XII.  278 ;  and 
the  different  kinds  of  vegetables  profitable  for  cultivation 
are  noticed,  each  in  its  appropriate  place.    Mar- 
Vegetable      ket  gardening  in  the  United  States  is  the  sub- 
Garden,       ject  of  a  comprehensive  paragraph  in  sup.  95. 
See  what  is  said  about  the  Potato,  XIX.  593, 
and  I.    364,  about  its   diseases,  XIX.   596,  and  about  its 
most  destructive  enemy,  VI.  134. 

The  manner  of  raising  other  root  crops,  such  as  turnips, 
mangel-wurzels,  carrots,  parsnips,  cabbages,  kohlrabi,  etc., 


THE   GARDENER.  243 

is  described  with  some  minuteness  in  the  chapter  begin- 
ning on  I.  346.  All  the  common  vegetables  raised  in  the 
gardens  receive  notice  in  the  Britannica.  Special  articles 
also  are  given  on  the  cultivation  of  these  vegetables  in 
the  United  States,  as  : 

Beets,  sup.  402 ;  Beet  sugar,  sup.  403,  etc. 

But  for  the  latest  information,  see  the  special  article  on 
Agriculture  in  the  United  States,  sup.  89-101. 

Market  gardens,  sup.  95. 

Minor  crops,  sup.  96. 

Truck-farming  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2951. 

Truck  farms,  sup.  94. 

See  also  the  references  in  the  chapters  entitled  The 
Fruit  Grower  and  The  Woodsman. 


244  GUIDE  TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

THE   FRUIT   GROWER. 

"  They  shall  sit  every  man  under  his  vine  and  under  his  fig-tree." — 
The  Book  of  Micah. 

"  You  only,  O  books,  are  liberal  and  independent.  You  give  to  all 
who  ask,  and  enfranchise  all  who  serve  you  assiduously.  Truly,  you 
are  the  ears  filled  with  most  palatable  grains — fruitful  olives,  vines  of. 
Engaddi,  fig-trees  knowing  no  sterility;  burning  lamps  to  be  ever  held 
in  the  hand." — Richard de  Bury. 

FOR  the  fruit  grower,  be  he  farmer  or  gardener,  there  is 

to  be  found  in  the  Britannica  a  great  variety  of  practical, 

useful  information.     As  to  soils,  fertilizers,  irri- 

The  gation,  and  other  subjects  of  general  interest  to 
Orchard.  all  cultivators  of  the  ground,  it  may  be  well  to 
consult  the  references  already  given  in  our 
chapter  for  The  Farmer.  In  the  first  volume  of  the 
Britannica,  page  284,  there  is  a  short  chapter  on  Orchard 
Culture  which  will  repay  the  reading.  Of  still  greater 
practical  interest  is  a  chapter  in  sup.  95,  on  Orchard  Pro- 
ducts of  the  United  States.  An  extensive  list  of  standard 
FRUIT  TREES,  with  descriptions  of  the  best  varieties,  may 
be  found  in  XII.  269,  and  should  be  marked  for  ready 
reference.  Further  descriptions  of  fruit  and  fruit  trees 
are  presented  in  special  short  articles  under  appropriate 
headings,  for  example  : 

Apple,  II.  211  ;  the  culture  of  apples  for  cider, 'V.  775. 

Apricot,  II.  214. 

Peach,  XVIII.  442  ;  the  peach-house,  XII.  224;  peaches 
in  the  United  States,  sup.  2330. 

Pear,  XVIII.  445,  sup.  2330. 


THE  FRUIT  GROWER.  245 

Plum,  XIX.  230. 
Prune,  XIX.  230. 
Quince,  XX.  182. 

The  article  on  Strawberries,  XXII.  592,  is  interesting 
and  valuable.     So  also  are  those  on  other  small  fruits : 

Raspberries,  XIII.  276. 
Small        Cranberries,  VI.  45,  and  XII.  270. 
Fruits.       Whortleberries,  XXIV.  556. 

Currants,  VI.  715,  and  XII.  270. 

The  culture  of  grapes  receives  the  attention  which  its 
importance  deserves.     See  the  practical  chapters  on  vine- 
yards, XII.  277,  and  that  on  vineyards  in  the 

United  States,  sup.  96.      See,  too,  Viticulture, 
Grapes.  .   ,         .   ,  ,       T_. 

sup.  3056 ;  also  the  special  article  on  the  Vine, 

XXIV.  237.     The  manufacture  of  wine  from 
grapes  is  described  fully  in  XXIV.  602. 

The  wines  of  different  localities  are  referred  to  else- 
where, as : 

Canary  wine,  IV.  797. 
Catawba,  V.  219. 
Madeira,  XV.  178. 
Wurtemberg,  XXIV.  70x3. 

Fruit-houses,  for  the  storing  of  the  products  of  garden 
and  orchard,  are  described  at  length  in  XII.  223.     The  en- 
tire article  on  HORTICULTURE,  XII.  211-295,  is 
Fruit        °f   value   to  the  fruit  grower,  and  should    be 
Houses,     read  and  frequently  consulted. 

See  also  the  account  of  the  societies  that  have 

been  formed  for  the  promotion  of  horticulture,  XXII.  225. 

Tropical   fruits   are  noticed,  and    described  at  length. 

Some  of  the  best  known  are : 
Fruits  The  date-palm,  VI.  831. 

The  fig-tree,  IX.  153;  IV.  121. 
Banana,  III.  307. 


246  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Bread-fruit,  IV.  241. 

Lemon,  XIV.  437. 

Orange,  XVII.  810. 

Pine-apple,  XIX.  106. 

Pomegranate,  XIX.  441. 

Other  articles  which  commend  themselves,  not  only  to 
fruit  growers,  but  to  large  numbers  of  gardeners  and  farm- 
ers as  well,  are  the  following : 

Grafting,  XII.  213,  236. 

Care  of      Budding,  XII.  237  ;  XX.  423. 

Trees.        Pruning,  XII.  214,  241. 
Garden  Trees,  XII.  260. 

Fungicides,  sup.  1351. 

Mildew,  XVI.  293. 

Diseases  of  Vines,  XXIV.  238. 

The  Canning  Industry,  sup.  685. 

In  the  chapter  entitled  The  Woodsman,  in  this  GUIDE, 
the  fruit  grower  may  find  numerous  further  references  to 
trees,  their  culture,  propagation,  and  uses.  Many  of  these 
articles,  if  he  will  take  the  pains  to  consult  them,  may 
prove  to  be  of  genuine  value  to  him. 


THE  WOODSMAN.  247 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

THE   WOODSMAN. 

"  Love  of  trees  and  plants  is  safe.  You  do  not  run  risks  in  your  affec- 
tions."— Alex.  Smith. 

"The  love  of  knowledge  comes  with  reading  and   grows   upon  it." 

— Henry  Ward  Beecher. 

IN  this  chapter  the  word  woodsman  will  be  used  in  a 
broad  and  somewhat  unusual  sense.  It  will  include  every 
one  who  is  in  any  way  actively  interested  in  trees,  and 
especially  in  the  trees  of  the  forest.  First,  the  man  who 
regards  trees  only  as  objects  of  trade  and  profit,  and 
views  them  always  from  an  economical  standpoint,  caring 
for  them  only  so  far  as  they  are  of  practical  use  to  man- 
kind ;  second,  those  who  love  trees  for  their  beauty,  their 
fragrance,  their  grateful  shade,  their  friendship  ;  and  third, 
those  who  take  pleasure  in  studying  them  in  their  scientific 
aspects,  observing  their  modes  of  growth  and  their  influ- 
ence upon  climate,  soil,  and  various  forms  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life.  For  all  these  "  woodsmen  "  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  has  a  variety  of  entertaining  and  trustworthy 
information. 

I.  FORESTRY. 

As  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  trees,  read  the  article 
on  FORESTRY,  sup.  1309.  Then  turn  to  the  very  compre- 
hensive article,  Forests  and  Forest  Administration,  IX. 
396-410,  and  notice  the  practical  character  of  the  informa- 
tion there  given.  After  this,  read  of  the  Forests  of  the  United 


248  GUIDE  TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 

States,  XXIII.  803-807.  Another  article  of  much  value  is 
that  on  ARBORICULTURE,  II.  314-324.  This,  of  course, 
relates  especially  to  the  growing  of  trees  as  one  branch  of 
agriculture.  Read  particularly  the  section  relating  to  the 
culture  of  trees,  II.  315,  and  that  on  timber  trees,  IX. 
405,  406.  Valuable  practical  suggestions  are  also  given 
with  relation  to  plantations  of  forest  trees,  II.  322  a.  For 
an  account  of  the  timbered  region  of  the  United  States, 
see  sup.  2390;  IV.  704;  XXIII.  808.  For  the  forests  of 
Canada,  see  IV.  773.  The  climatic  influences  of  forests 
are  discussed  in  VI.  4. 

Of  especial  interest  to  lumbermen  is  the  article  on  SAW- 
MILLS, XXI.  344.  An  account  of  the  lumber 

trade  in  the  United  States  is  given  in  XXIII. 
Lumbering.  ••«••«•  •  • 

on.      1  he  trade  in  Michigan  receives  notice  in 

XVI.  238,  as  also  does  that  of  Canada,  in  IV.  774. 
The  uses  of  wood  as  building  material  are  described  in 
IV.  448  ;  its  strength,  VIII.  816,  and  XXII.  603  ;  its  value 
as  fuel,  IX.  808. 

II.     USEFUL    TREES. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  in  this  chapter  to  name  all  the 
articles  in  the  Britannica  that  have  reference  to  individual 
forest  trees.  It  may  not  be  amiss,  however,  to  direct 
especial  attention  to  the  following  : 

Oak,  XVII.  689 — an  illustrated  article  very  interesting 
to  all  lovers  of  trees;  the  strength  of  oak  wood, 

Timber      XXII.  603  ;  the  use  of  oak  bark    for  tanning, 

Trees.  XIV.  381;  the  oak  in  the  United  States, 
XXIII.  808. 

Elm,  VIII.  151  b;  culture  of,  II.  317. 

Pine,  XIX.  102  ;  strength  of  wood,  XXII.  603  ;  pines 
of  California,  IV.  704;  pines  of  the  Alps,  XIX.  102;  cul- 
ture of,  II.  316. 


THE   WOODSMAN.  249 

Pine  lumbering  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2390. 

Fir,  IX.  222  ;  strength  of  wood,  XXII.  603  ;  Scotch 
pines,  XIX.  103. 

Boxwood,  IV.  181  ;  uses  of  wood,  XXIV.  645. 

Rosewood,  XX.  851. 

Logwood,  XIV.  805  ;  XII.  133. 

Mahogany,  XV.  288  ;  IX.  406  ;  strength  of  wood,  XXII. 
603. 

Eucalyptus,  VIII.  649;  XIII.  593:  eucalyptus  in  Au- 
stralia, XXIV.  216,  508. 

The  great  trees  of  California  are  described  in  IV.  704 
and  XXI.  673. 

Of  the  trees  that  are  valuable  for  their  products,  but 
not  valuable  as  timber,  it  may  be  interesting  to 
Valuable  note  tne  following  : 

Trees.  Cinchona  (quinine  tree),  V.  780.  Its  culti- 

vation in  Peru,  XVIII.  673  ;  in  India,  III.  568, 
and  XII.  751  ;  and  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  XI.  833. 

Caoutchouc  (india-rubber),  IX.  154;  XVIII.  673;  IV. 
226;  XII.  835,  and  IV.  88. 

III.    FRUIT   TREES. 

Olive,  XVII.  761  ;  III.  59. 
Orange,  XVIL  810. 
Lemon,  XVIL  437. 

Banana,  III.  307  ;  XIX.  176,  and  XIX.  419. 
Mulberry,  XVIL  13,  and  XXII.  58. 
But  for  the  common  fruit  trees,  see  the  chapter  entitled 
The  Gardener. 

IV.    FOOD   PLANTS   AND   TREES. 

COFFEE  PLANT,  cultivation  of,  V.  no;  in  Brazil,  IV. 
227  ;  in  Cuba,  VI.  68 1  ;  in  Arabia,  II.  237  ;  in  Java, 
603  ;  in  Ceylon,  V.  369. 


250  GUIDE  TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 

TEA  PLANT,  XXIII.  97,  and  IV.  738  ;  cultivation  of,  in 
China,  V.  636  ;  in  India,  XII.  750,  and  III.  568. 

Cocoa,  or  Cacao,  VI.  100. 

Date  Palm,  VI.  831,  XVIII,  190;  of  Arabia,  II.  237. 

Fig,  IX.  153. 

Almond,  I.  594. 

Aloe,  I.   597. 

Bread-fruit,  IV.  243. 

Among  the  curious  trees  of  the  world,  mention  may  be 
made  of  the  Banyan,  III.  348;  Baobab,  I.  268;  Bo,  or 
sacred  fig-tree,  IX.  154;  Upas  tree,  XXIII.  859,  and  this 
list  might  be  extended  indefinitely. 

See  chapter  entitled  The  Gardener. 

An  account  of  the  great  parks  of  the  world 

Parks        aPPeals  to  the  interest  of  every  woodsman  and 
every  lover  of  trees.     See  the  following  articles  : 
National  Parks,  sup.  2296. 

Parks  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  sup.  2297,  VI. 
161  ;  XXIII.  796. 

Adirondack  Park,  sup.  48. 

National  military  parks,  sup.  2297. 

Yellowstone  National  Park,  sup.  3219. 

Washington  Elm,  at  Cambridge,  sup.  662. 

Charter  Oak,  sup.  757. 

In  conclusion,  the  reader's  attention  is  directed  to  the 
article  on  Arbor  Day,  sup.  215,  and  the  additional  para- 
graph on  the  same  subject,  XII.  848. 

The  above  references  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the  vast 
amount  of  curious,  interesting,  and  instructive  information 
that  may  be  derived  from  the  Britannica  with  reference  to 
this  subject  of  trees. 


THE   STOCK  GROWER.  251 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

THE   STOCK   RAISER. 

"  The  cattle  are  grazing, 
•  Their  heads  never  raising  ; 
There  are  forty  feeding  like  one." 

—  Wordsworth. 

"  The  man  who  has  studied  a  subject  is  on  that  subject  the  intellect- 
ual superior  of  the  man  who  has  not." — Earl Lytton. 

THE  interests  of  the  stock  raiser  are  in  many  respects 
identical  with  those  of  the  farmer.  Indeed,  most  farmers 
are  stock  raisers,  and  most  stock  raisers  are  by  necessity 
also  farmers.  Hence,  the  references  and  readings  indi- 
cated in  this  chapter  are  intended  for  the  help  and  guid- 
ance both  of  farmers  and  stock  raisers,  and  of  all  readers 
of  the  Britannica  who  are  in  any  way  engaged  in  the 
breeding  or  care  of  domestic  animals. 

The  chapter  on  stock-raising  in  the  United  States,  sup. 
96,  gives  much  valuable  information  that  is  strictly  up  to 
date.  So  also  does  the  paragraph  on  farm  animals  in  the 
United  States,  sup.  2989. 

Read  the  article  Breeds  and  Breeding,  IV.  244 ;  then 
see  what  is  said  of  the  breeding  of  animals,  I.  389,  393, 
and  XXI.  722. 

The  article  on  the  HORSE,  XII.  172,  is  a  comprehensive 

one,  of  great  value  to  every  horse-owner.    This 

The        is  supplemented  by  some  later  facts  in  the  arti- 

Horse.  cle  on  Agriculture  in  the  United  States,  sup. 
89-101,  and  by  further  information  regarding 
the  breeding  and  rearing  of  horses,  I.  384. 


2$2  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

An  interesting  article  on  horse-racing  in  the  United 
States  maybe  found  in  sup.  1615-1617.  After  this,  see 
Trotting  and  Pacing,  sup.  2948. 

For  the  Arabian  horse,  see  II.  240. 

For  the  Persian,  XVIII.  625. 

For  the  Clydesdale,  XIV.  251. 

Trotting  records,  sup.  2948. 

Famous  trotters  and  pacers,  sup.  2949. 

For  the  diseases  of  horses,  see  XXIV.  201,  204. 

The  art  of  horse-shoeing  is  described  in  XXI.  831  and 
XVII.  1 66. 

A  special  article  on  CATTLE,  V.  244,  is  interesting  for 

its    historical    information.      The    chapter    on 

Bovidae,  XV.  432,  has  a  strictly  scientific  value. 

The   breeding   of   cattle   is   discussed    in    I. 

387. 

For  the  diseases  of  cattle,  sup.  97,  XVII.  57,  XXIV. 
204,  and  I.  304,  and  V.  589.  See  also  Fardel,  sup.  1244; 
Foot-rot,  sup.  1304;  Founder,  sup.  1320. 

The  dairyman  will  read  of  the  management  of  milch 
cows,  I.  390.  He  will  be  especially  interested  in  the  long 
article  on  the  DAIRY,  VI.  768  ;  in  the  chapter  on  Dairy 
Products  in  the  United  States,  sup.  98  ;  in  the  article  on 
Milk,  XVI.  301;  Beestings,  sup.  402;  Butter,  IV.  590; 
and  Cheese,  V.  455.  He  will  also  read  what  is  said  of  the 
freshness  and  purity  of  milk,  and  the  directions  for  its 
treatment  in  the  dairy,  XIV.  304.  Within  recent  years 
the  methods  of  making  butter  have  undergone  radical 
changes,  and  these  methods  are  described  in  sup.  638. 

See,  also,  artificial  butter,  sup.  639. 

American  process  of  making  cheese,  sup.  763. 

The  influence  of  cattle-shows,  I.  390,  is  another  subject 
which  will  claim  the  cattle-breeder's  attention. 

One    of  the  chief  objects  of  the  stock   raiser  is  to  pro- 


THE  STOCK  GROWER.  253 

vide  beeves,  hogs,  or  sheep  for  the  great  markets,  where 
they  are  slaughtered  and  turned  into  food  products.     This 
latter  process  does  not  necessarily  interest  the  stock  raiser; 
it  concerns  rather  the  butcher  and  the  dealer  in  dressed 
meats,  and  to  these  it  may  be  a  matter  of  moment  to  learn 
how  every  portion  of  a  slaughtered  animal  may  be  made 
to  realize  some  profit.      The  latest  improved 
The        methods  of  slaughtering  beeves  and  preparing 
Butcher,     the  various  parts  for  market  are  fully  described 
in    an    article    on    ECONOMICAL    SYSTEM    OF 
ABATTOIRS,  sup.  n.     A  further  and  more  complete  ac- 
count of  the  processes  connected  with  the  manufacture  of 
flesh-food  products  is  given  in  the  article   Packing,  sup. 
2278. 

The  article  on  SHEEP,  XXI,  784,  is  one  of  much  value 
to  all  who  have  the  care  of  these  animals.  The 
breeding  and  management  of  sheep  are  further 
discussed  in  I.  391,  and  IV.  250.  The  question 
as  to  what  are  the  best  foods  in  wool-culture  is 
discussed  in  sup.  3189. 

For  Southdowns,  see  XXII.  725. 
For  Merinos,  XXII.  300. 
For  Dorsets,  VII.  371. 

The  diseases  of  sheep  are  described  in  XXIV.  204,  and 
XXIIL  539;  Murrain,  XVII.  59. 

The  proper  method  of  shearing  is  described  in  I.  396. 
And  in  this  connection  the  article  on  WOOL,  XXIV. 
653,  should  be  read,  together  with  the  supplementary  ar- 
ticle on  American  manufactures  of  wool,  sup.  3189. 

The  American  wool-grower  will  also  -be  interested  in 
what  is  said  of  wool-growing  in  Australia,  III.  114.  (See 
also,  the  references  to  Textile  Products  in  the  chapter 
entitled  The  Manufacturer,  in  this  GUIDE. 

Hogs  are   treated  historically  and  scientifically  in  the 


254  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

article  on  SwiNE,  XXII.  773,  and  notes  concerning  their 
breeding  and  management  are  given  in  I.  400. 

For  the  history  of  hog-raising  in  the  United 
States  during  the  past  ten  years,  see  the  chapter 
on  that  subject,  sup.  97. 

Their  diseases  are  described  in  XXIV.  205,  206,  and 
XVIII.  270. 

Poultry  is  the  subject  of  a  valuable  article,  XIX.  640, 
wherein  the  various  breeds  of  fowls  are  described  at 
length.  This  is  supplemented  by  an  article  on  FOWLS, 
IX.  491. 

The  management  of  poultry  receives  special 

attention  in  I.  401. 
Poultry.  _  .        , 

Some  interesting  facts  about  eggs  are  given 

in  VII.  201,  and  VII.  696;  and  the  latest  fig- 
ures about  their  production  in  sup.  99. 

The  goose  is  noticed  in  a  special  article,  X.  777,  and 
the  duck  in  VII.  505  ;  while  the  turkey  is  described  at 
length  m  XXIII.  657. 

Of  course  the  question  of  foods  and  feeding  is  one  in 
which  the  stock  raiser  and  the  farmer  are  always  interested. 
The  subject  of  pastures  and  pasturage  is  intelligently 
discussed  in  I.  370,  and  I.  402,  and  is  worthy  of  the  care- 
ful attention  of  every  stock  raiser. 

Some  account  of  American  grass  crops  for  pasturage 
is  given  in  XI.  53-60,  and  the  cultivation  of 
American  grasses  is  the  subject  of  an  article  in 

Pasturage.  T 

sup.  I.  305. 

The  latest  facts  relating  to  the  production  of 
forage  crops  in  this  country  are  given  in  sup.  94,  and  sup. 

1305- 

For  the  culture  of  HAY,  see  I.  378. 
The  various   grains,  vegetables,  etc.,  used   in   feeding 


THE  STOCK  GROWER.  255 

domestic   animals  have  already  been    referred    to  in  our 
chapter  for  The  Farmer. 

Other  domestic  animals,  not  mentioned  in  this  chapter, 
are  treated  of,  each  in  its  proper  place.  But  the  care  of 
them  cannot  properly  be  said  to  belong  exclusively  to  the 
stock  raiser  or  the  farmer.  (See  the  Index  volume.) 


256  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

THE   MINER. 

"  Excellence  is  never  granted  to  man  but  as  the  reward  of  labor." 

—  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 

MINING,  or  the  process  by  which  useful  minerals  are 
obtained  from  the  earth's  crust,  is  treated  with  great  ful- 
ness in  the  Britannica.  The  special  article  on  this  subject, 
XVI.    440—472,    is  a    valuable    treatise,   amply 

illustrated  with  cuts  and  diagrams,  and  replete 
Mining. 

with   interesting   information    for  all  who   are 

engaged  in  this  branch  of  industry.  It  may  be 
read  by  sections,  in  connection  with  collateral  references 
to  other  articles  relating  to  the  different  branches  of  the 
subject. 

1.  Manner  in  which    the  useful  minerals  occur   in  the 
earth's  crust,  viz.,  tabular   deposits  and  masses,  faults,   or 
dislocations,  XVI.  440-442. 

2.  Prospecting,  or  search  for  minerals,  XVI.  442-443. 

3.  Boring  with    rods  and  ropes — diamond  drills,  XVI. 
443-444;  Quarrying  machinery,  sup.  2481. 

4.  Breaking    ground  —  Tools     employed  — 
Mining       Blasting — Machine  drills — Driving   levels    and 
Processes,     sinking  shafts,  XVI.  444-449.     See,  adso,  Blast- 
ing, III.  808  ;  XXIII.  662. 

5.  Employment  of  labor,  XVI.  449. 

6.  Securing  excavations  by  timber,  iron,  or  masonry, 
XVI.  449-451. 


THE  MINER.  257 

7.  Working    away    of  veins,  beds,  and  masses,    XVI. 

451-455. 

8.  Carriage    of    minerals    along    underground     roads, 

XVI.  455-456. 

9.  Raising  minerals  to  the  surface,  XVI.  456-457. 

10.  Drainage  of  mines,  XVI.  457-459. 

11.  Ventilation  and  lighting  of  mines,  XVI.  459-461. 

12.  Means  of  descending   and    ascending,    XVI.  461- 
462.  Safety  appliances,  sup.  2600. 

13.  Preparation  of  ores,  XVI.  462-467. 

14.  Laws  relating  to  mining,  XVI.  466. 

15.  Accidents  in  mines,  XVI.  466-467. 

For  a  general  description  of  the  methods  of  coal-mining 
in  the  United  States,  see  sup.  841. 

For  statistics  respecting  the  product  of  the  world's  min- 
ing,   and    especially    the    mineral  products  of 
Mineral       tne  United  States,  see  XVI.  469. 
Products.          For  a  special  account  and  description  of  the 
minerals  of  any  particular  country,  see  the  ar- 
ticle relating  to  that  country ;  for  instance,  if  you  wish  to 
know  what  minerals  are  produced  in  India,  see  under  IN- 
DIA, XII.   764  a.     Also  note  such  references  as  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Minerals  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  II.  201. 

Gold  and  silver  in  Bolivia,  IV.  13. 

Minerals  in  Borneo,  IV.  57. 

Minerals  in  Burmah,  IV.  552. 

Gold  in  California,  IV.  701. 

Minerals  in  Arabia,  II.  244. 

Minerals  in  Australia.  III.  109. 

Minerals  in  Cuba,  VI.  680. 

And  hundreds  of  others  of  like  character. 

For  interesting  historical  notes  on  the  discovery  and 
use  of  certain  metals,  see  METALS,  XVI.  63. 
17 


258  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Special  articles  are  devoted  to  all  the  great  minerals,  as 
follows : 

COAL,  VI.  45-85  ;  classification  of  coal,  VI.  45  ;  origin 

of,  VI.  47 ;  X.  238  ;  anthracite  coal  of  the  Unit- 

The  Great     e^  States,  II.  106,  and  XXIII.  811  ;  coal-min- 

Minerals.      ing,  VI.  61   (see  Coalfields,  in  Index  volume, 

XXV.  103) ;  analysis  of  coal,  VI.  80  ;  area  of 

coalfields  in  the  United  States,  I.  680. 

GOLD,  X.  740  ;  gold-mining,  X.  745,  and  IV.  791  ;  gold 
in  the  United  States,  XXIII.  81 1,  814,  and  sup.  1416  ;  gold 
mines  of  America,  I.  716;  Cripple  Creek  mines,  sup.  944. 

SILVER,  XXII.  69;  description  of  silver,  XVI.  382; 
silver  and  silver-mining,  sup.  2719;  how  silver  is  mined, 
XVI.  470.  See,  also,  Metallurgy,  XVI.  58  ;  and  Assaying, 
II.  724. 

IRON,  XIII.  278  ;  ores  of  iron,  XVI.  58  ;  iron-mining  in 
the  United  States,  XXIII.  811;  rolling-mill  product  of 
iron,  XX.  1352  ;  iron  industry  in  the  United  States, 
XXIII.  813  ;  strength  of  iron,  XXII.  603.  (See  also  In- 
dex volume,  page  226.) 

COPPER,  VI.  347 ;  copper-mining,  XVI.  452  ;  copper- 
mining  in  the  United  States,  sup.  912 ;  production  in 
the  United  States,  XXIII.  816;  in  Michigan,  XVI.  239; 
copper  pyrites,  XX.  129;  copper-smelting,  XXII.  733. 

LEAD,  XIV.  374  ;  production  of  lead  in  the  United 
States,  XXIII.  817;  in  Missouri,  XVI.  525  ;  lead-mining, 
XVI.  465  ;  description  of  lead  ores,  XVI.  383. 

ZINC,  XXIV.  784;  production  of  zinc  in  the  United 
States,  XXIII.  817;  treatment  of  zinc  ores,  XVI.  465. 

TIN,  XXIII.  400  ;  ores  of,  XVI.  58  ;  production  in  the 
United  States,  XXIII.  816;  history  of  mines  in  Corn- 
wall, VI.  425. 

QUICKSILVER,  mines  and  reduction  works  in  the  Unit- 
ed States,  sup.  2990. 


THE   MINER.  259 

Read,  finally,  the  article  on  METALLURGY,  XVI.  57-62, 
describing  the  methods  used  industrially  for  the  extraction 
of  metals  from  their  ores.  See  also  : 

Amalgamation  of  gold,  X.  747  ;  of  silver,  XXII.  69  ; 
mercurial  amalgam,  I.  652. 

Blast  furnace,  IX.  840. 

Assaying,  II.  724. 

Table  of  fusibility  of  metals,  XVI.  66. 

See  the  two  chapters,  entitled  respectively,  The  Mine- 
ralogist and  The  Geologist. 


260  GUIDE  TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

THE   GEOLOGIST. 

"Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything." 

— As  You  Like  It. 

THE  practical  importance  of  the  work  of  the  geologist 
is  now  very  generally  recognized.  It  is  his  to  investigate 
not  only  the  manner  in  which  the  evolution  of  the  earth's 
great  surface  features  has  been  effected,  but,  by  studying 
the  peculiarities  of  local  formations,  to  discover  what  im- 
portant minerals  are  probably  concealed  within  the  earth's 
crust  in  given  situations ;  what  is  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
and,  in  general,  what  are  the  hidden  mineral  resources  of 
the  country.  The  general  article  on  GEOLOGY,  X.  212- 
375>  by  the  celebrated  Archibald  Geikie,  is  a  very  com- 
plete and  excellent  introduction  to  the  study  of  this  science. 
It  is  amply  illustrated,  and  the  special  index,  on  page  375, 
will  assist  the  busy  inquirer  in  finding  the  answer  to  almost 
any  question  on  this  subject  that  may  be  suggested. 

An  article  of  much  practical  interest  to  American  read- 
ers is  that  on  the  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  sup.  2832. 

The  cosmical  aspect  of  geology,  X.  213-220,  may  be 
studied  still  further  by  reference  to  the  article  Cosmogony, 
VI.  446.  For  additional  curious  hypotheses  concerning 
the  origin  of  the  earth,  see  I.  460;  III.  193;  XVII.  143; 
and  XXII.  564. 

Dynamical  geology,  especially  that  portion  o'f  the  sub- 
ject which  seeks  to  unravel  the  complicated  pro- 
Dynamical  ...  .  if  -I* 
Geology  cesses  by  which  each  continent  has  been  built 

up,  is  further  treated  under  the  head  of  PHYSI- 
CAL GEOGRAPHY,  X.  210.     See  also: 


THE  GEOLOGIST.  261 

Mountains,  XVII.  4,  10,  and  I.  623. 

Volcanoes,  X.  240. 

Earthquakes,  VII.  608  (Index  volume,  page  141). 

Rivers,  XX.  571. 

Lakes,  XIV.  216. 

Palaeontological  geology,  or  the  study  of  organic  forms 
found  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  is  the  subject  of  an  inter- 
esting chapter,  X.  319-325.     The  subject  is  treated  still 
further  in  the  following  articles  : 
Distribution,  VII.  267. 
Palseontol-     Birds,  III.  728  (see  special  index,  III.  777). 

ogy.         Ichthyology,  XII.  666;  I.  275. 
Ichthyosaurus,  XII.  695. 

Mammalia,  XV.  375  (see  special  index,  XV.  446). 

Mammoth,  XV.  447. 

Fossils  of  America,  I.  682.    Fossil  footprints,  sup.  1317. 

Oldest  known  fossils,  IX.  384. 

Stratigraphical  geology  is  treated  very  fully  in  Volume 
X.,  pages  325-370. 

Archaean  rocks,  or  formation,  X.  327. 

Palaeozoic,  X.  328. 

Secondary,  or  Mesozoic,  X.  352. 

Tertiary,  or  Cainozoic,  X.  360. 

Post-Tertiary,  or  Quarternary,  X.  360. 

A  further  study  of  these  subjects  will  involve  references 
to  the  following  topics  : 

Coal,  VI.  45. 

Coalfields  and  coal-mines  (see  Index  volume,  page  103). 
Coalfields  of  America,  sup.  482. 

Practical       Caves,  V.  265. 

Geology.      Glaciers  (see  Index  volume,  page  183). 

Artesian  wells,  II.  644. 
Petroleum,  XVIII.  237,  712. 
Natural  gas,  XXIII.  813. 


262  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Many  other  articles  which  will  suggest  themselves  to  the 
reader  as  he  pursues  this  study  may  be  found  by  reference 
to  the  Index  volume. 

In  studying  the  history  of  the  science  of  Geology,  you 
will  find  the  names  of  a  few  distinguished  men  to  whose 
labors  and  investigations  we  are  indebted  for  the  greater 
part  of  our  knowledge  concerning  this  subject.  It  may  be 
of  some  interest  to  you  to  read  the  story  of  their  lives. 
Among  these,  the  following  are  especially  noteworthy : 

Sir  Charles  Lyell,  XVI.  101. 

Hugh  Miller,  XVI.  319. 
William  Buckland,  IV.  420. 
Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  XVII.  50. 
John  Phillips,  XVIII.  758. 

William  Smith,  XXII.  178. 

Alexander  Winchell,  sup.  1630. 

Sir  J.  William  Dawson,  sup.  1000. 

Joseph  Le  Conte,  sup.  1852. 

Jules  Marcou,  sup.  1990. 

John  S.  Newberry,  sup.  2168. 


THE   SEAMAN.  263 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

THE   SEAMAN. 

"  But  a  great  book  that  comes  from  a  great  thinker — it  is  a  ship  of 
thought,  deep  freighted  with  truth,  with  beauty,  too." — Theodore  Parker. 

I.      SHIPBUILDING. 

THE  subject  of  greatest  importance  to  all  navigators  is 
ships.     The  history  of  shipbuilding,  from  the  first   rude 

efforts    of    primitive    man    to    the   wonderful 

istory      achievements  of  the  present  time,  is  a  topic  full 

Ships       °^  interest  to  both  seamen  and  landsmen.     In 

the  twenty-first  volume  of  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  page  804,  there  is  a  readable  and  very  enter- 
taining article  on  the  development  of  the  ship  and  of  the 
art  of  navigation,  particularly  in  ancient  and  mediaeval 
times.  The  ships  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  first  race  of  sea- 
faring men,  are  further  described  in  XVIII.  804.  The 
ships  used  by  the  Greeks  in  the  time  of  Homer,  and  also 
the  war  vessels,  biremes  and  triremes,  used  in  the  earli- 
est sea  fights,  are  noticed  at  considerable  length  in  the 
pages  which  follow.  Mediaeval  merchant  vessels  are  de- 
scribed on  page  808. 

The  very  exhaustive  article  on  SHIPBUILDING,  XXI. 
809-826,  contains  much  information  of  general  interest. 
Read  the  introductory  paragraphs,  page  809,  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  "  Great  Western  "  and  the  "Great  Eastern," 
page  815,  the  paragraphs  on  Propulsion,  pages  822,  823 
and  the  section  on  Boatbuilding,  page  825. 


264  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Primitive  boat  of  wicker-work,  III.  421. 

Whaleboat,  XXIV.  526. 
Boats.        Boatbuilding,  XXL  825. 

Rowing,  XXI.  29. 
Life-boat,  XIV.  570. 
Canoes,  IV.  811. 
Catamarans,  sup.  722. 
Yachts  and  yachting,  XXIV.  722. 

Yacht-building,  sup.  3215. 

Steamboat,  XXII.  478. 

Steamships,  XXL  823  ;  III.  542  ;  sup.  2781, 

Whaleback  steamers,  sup.  3133. 
Marine  engines,  sup.  1992. 
The  Campania  and  Lucania,  sup.  2782. 
The  Great  Eastern,  IV.  397;  XXL  815. 
The  Great  Western,  IV.  397. 
The  Great  Harry,  XVII.  281. 
Oars,  XXL  30 ;  ancient  oars,  XXL  807. 
Rowing,  sup.  2584. 
Sails  and  sail-making,  XXL  153. 
Mast,  IV.  477. 

Spars  and  rigging,  XXI.  594. 
Rudder  and  helm,  XXL  602. 

Cable,  IV.  621. 
Nautical  Capstan,  V.  28. 
Subjects.  Anchor,  II.  3. 

Mariner's  compass,  VI.  225  ;  XV.  518. 
Sextant,  XXI.  724. 
Sailors'  knots,  XIV.  128. 
Bends  and  splices,  XXI.  592. 
Log,  XIV.  769. 
Speed  recorder,  sup.  2764. 
Marine  glue,  sup.  1412. 


THE   SEAMAN.  265 

II.   NAVIGATION. 

The  article  on  NAVIGATION,  or  the  art  of  conducting  a 
ship  across  the  ocean,  XVII.  250-277,  next  claims  our  at- 
tention. The  first  half  of  this  article  contains  a  good  deal 
of  valuable  historical  information.  The  latter  half  is  more 
technical  and  scientific,  and  is  an  exhibition  of  the  theory 
and  art  of  practical  or  modern  navigation.  A  popular 
course  of  reading  would  include  the  following  articles  or 
parts  of  articles : 

Dockyards,  VII.  310;  wharves,  sup.  3133. 

Clearance,  sup.  826. 

Sounding,  XXII.  49. 

Buoys,  IV.  530. 

United  States  buoy  service,  sup.  623. 

Naval  signals,  XXII.  49 ;  sup.  2716. 

"  Law  of  the  road  "  at  sea,  sup.  2556. 

Fog  signals,  sup.  1296,  2556. 

Search-light,  sup.  2670. 

Lighthouses,  XIV.  615. 

Lighthouse  Board,  sup.  1885. 

Life-saving  service  in  the  United  States,  sup. 
Sea  1882. 

Terms.  Latitude,  X.  198;  XVII.  251. 

Longitude,  XXIII.  394;  X.  187,  198. 

Tides,  XXIII.  353. 

Ocean  currents,  X.  283 ;  XVII.  275. 

Gulf  Stream,  III.  19. 

Trade-winds,  XVI.  143. 

Derelicts,  sup.  1031. 

Log,  XIV.  769. 

Marine  league,  sup.  1996. 

Harbors  and  docks,  sup.  1520;  harbors,  XI.  471. 

Law  of  ports,  XI.  471  ;  free  ports,  sup.  1337. 


266  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 

Bottomry,  IV.  167. 

Tonnage,  XXIII.  442. 

Salvage,  XXI.  237. 

Marine  insurance  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1995. 

Marine  hospital  service,  sup.  1994. 

Captain,  XVII.  292. 

Boatswain,  XVII.  293. 

Pilot,  XIX.  96. 

STEAMSHIP,  XXI.    589-605.     This    article  embraces  a 

great  variety  of  information  relative  to  the   duties  and 

labors  of  a  seaman  ;  how  to  make  knots,  bends, 

Seaman-      and  splices,  page  592  ;  how  to  distinguish  and 

ship.  name  the  spars  and  rigging  of  different  kinds 
of  vessels,  page  594 ;  how  to  lower  rigging  and 
set  up  stays,  page  595 ;  how  to  cast  anchor,  page  597  ;  all 
about  mooring  swivels,  anchors,  and  cables,  page  598,  etc. 
At  the  end  of  the  article,  page  603,  there  is  a  complete 
glossary  of  terms  used  by  seamen. 

Laws  relating  to  seamen,  XXI.  605-608. 

Shipping  laws,  sup.  2706. 

International  Commission  for  deep  waterways,  sup.  3103. 

Commerce  on  the  great  waterways — see  the  chapter 
entitled  The  Merchant  and  Trader. 

III.    SEA   INDUSTRIES. 

Sea  fisheries,  IX.  243. 

Whale  fisheries,  XXIV.  526;  whale-oil,  XVII.  744; 
whalebone,  XXIV.  528  ;  XV.  394. 

Seal  fisheries,  XXL  580;  sealskins,  IX.  839;  extermina- 
tion of  seals,  XIX.  126. 
Fisheries.         Coral  fisheries,  XXL  387;  XIII.  455. 

Sponge  fisheries,  XXII.  428. 
Amber  deposits  in  Baltic  Sea,  I.  659. 


THE   SEAMAN.  267 

Oyster  fisheries,  XVIII.  107. 
Pearl  oysters,  XVIII.  446. 

Cod  fisheries,  VI.  103  ;  off  Newfoundland,  XVII.  384; 
in  North  Sea,  IX.  255. 

Mackerel  fisheries,  XV.  160. 
Herring  fisheries,  IX.  251,  257. 
Sardine  fisheries,  IX.  253 ;  XIII.  455. 

t 

Salmon  fisheries,  XXI.  225. 
Shad  fishery,  XXI.  726 ;  XII.  694. 
Lake  fishing,  II.  39. 

Fishing-boats,  IX.  246. 

Fishing-nets,  XVII.  358. 

Fishery  Boards  and  Commissions,  XIX.  129. 

Laws  relating  to  fishermen,  XXI.  607. 

Fishery  laws,  IX.  268. 

Fisheries  of  the  United  States,  XV.  300. 
Fisheries  of  Newfoundland,  XVII.  384. 
Fisheries  of  England,  VIII.  233. 
Fisheries  of  Canada,  IV.  774. 
Fisheries  of  Russia,  XXI.  85. 


IV.   WONDERS   OF  THE   SEA. 

Depths  of  the  sea,  III.  17;  XII.  821. 
Deep-sea  sounding,  XXII.  280. 

Waves,  XXIV.  419. 
Descrip-         Tides,  XXIII.  353. 
tion.  Animals  in  the  sea,  VII.  276. 

Color  of  the  sea,  XIV.  600. 
General  description  of  the  sea,  XXI.  578. 


268  GUIDE  TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 

Sea-anemones,  I.  129. 
Sea-bear,  XV.  443. 

Sea-cat,  XXI.  614. 
Curiosi-         Sea-cow,  XV.  390. 
ties.  Sea-cucumber,  III.  477. 

Sea-devil,  VII.  138. 
Sea-eagle,  VII.  589. 
Sea-elephant,  XV.  /j/|/|. 
Sea-hare,  XVI.  656. 
Sea-hedgehog,  X.  685. 
Sea-horse,  XXI.  579. 
Sea-leopard,  XV.  443, 
Sea-lion,  XV.  443. 
Sea-otter,  XVIII.  69. 
Sea-parrot,  XX.  101. 
Sea-pens,  I.  129. 
Sea-pie,  XVIII.  ill. 
Sea-serpent,  XXI.  608. 
Sea-slugs,  VII.  639. 
Sea-snakes,  XXII.  197. 
Sea-swallow,  XXIII.  189. 
Sea-trout,  XXL  222. 
Sea-unicorn,  XV.  398. 
Sea-urchins,  VII.  629. 
Sea-wolf,  XXI.  614. 

V.    MARINE   WARFARE. 

History  of  modern  navies,  XVII.  279. 

The  navy  of  the  United  States,  sup.  2145-2153. 

Navy  yards,  sup.  2150. 

Naval  Academy  of  the  United  States,  sup. 

The  Navy.  ^TTTTT 

2142;  XVII.  300,  301. 

Naval  Observatory,  sup.  2143. 
Navy  Department  of  the  United  States,  sup.  2153. 


THE  SEAMAN.  269 

Ironclads,  XVII.  284-288. 

Ironclad  cruisers,  sup.  2149. 

Armored  ships  of  the  United  States,  sup.  2151. 

The  Massachusetts,  sup.  2146. 

The  Kearsarge,  sup.  1775,  2148. 

Torpedo-boats,  sup.  1994,  2817. 

Torpedoes,  sup.  2929. 

Submarine  boats,  sup.  2816. 

Turret  ships,  XVII.  285. 

Marines,  XV.  544. 

Naval  Reserves,  or  Naval  Militia,  sup.  2144. 

Naval  lieutenant,  XVII.  293. 

Captain,  XVII.  292. 

Commodore,  XVII.  292. 

Vice-admiral,  I.  159. 

Admiral,  I.  154. 

Embargo,  sup.  1186. 

Blockade,  III.  834. 

Privateering,  XIX.  764. 

Piracy,  XIX.  116. 

Hovering  acts,  sup.  1622. 

Maritime  law,  XXI.  583. 
Right  of  search,  XXI.  608. 

VI.    MISCELLANEOUS. 

Boat-races,  sup.  2584. 

Dredges  and  dredging,  sup.  2782. 

For  further  references  relating  to  ships,  canals,  and 
commerce,  see  the  chapter  entitled  The  Merchant  and 
Trader. 


270  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

THE   RAILROAD   MAN. 

"  What  Mr.  Robert  Stephenson  recently  said  of  the  locomotive,  at  a 
meeting  of  engineers  at  Newcastle,  is  true  of  nearly  every  other  capital 
invention  :  '  It  is  due,'  he  said,  '  not  to  one  man,  but  to  the  efforts  of  a 
nation  of  mechanical  engineers.'  "  —  Samuel  Smiles. 

I.    DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   RAILWAY. 

NOT  only  railroad  men,  but  all  intelligent  readers,  will 
be  interested  in  the  story  of  how  the  modern  railway  has 
been  developed  from  the  old  tramways  of  two 
^       10        hundred  years  ago  —  a  story  which  is  briefly  but 


Railway.      entertainingly  told  in  the  twentieth  volume  of 
the  Britannica,  beginning  on  page  223. 

Other  interesting  facts  relative  to  the  development  of 
the  railroad  may  be  learned  from  the  following  references  : 

George  Stephenson,  XXII.  537. 

Isambard  Kingdom  Brunei,  IV.  396. 

Development  of  railroads  in  the   United   States,  sup. 
2501;  XX.  253. 

Latest  facts  concerning  railroads  in  the  United  States, 
sup.  2490. 

Railroad  pooling,  sup.  2497. 

Railroad  financiering,  sup.  2504. 

Laws  relating  to  railways,  XX.  250. 

Law  of  abandonment,  I.  5. 

Use  of  railways  in  time  of  war,  XXIV.  349. 
Railways  and  agriculture,  I.  305. 


THE   RAILROAD   MAN.  271 

II.    ROADS  AND   BRIDGES. 

Railway  construction,  XX.  232. 

Rails,  XX.  241. 

Steel  rails,  sup.  2432. 

Testing  railway  rails,  XIII.  354. 

Railway  stations,  XX.  235. 

Railway  bridges,  IV.  285. 

Mountain  railways,  sup.  2119. 

Pacific  railways,  I.  715  ;  sup.  2275,  2492. 

Bicycle  railways,  sup.  460. 

Street  railways,  sup.  2115. 

Electric  railways,  XXIII.  494,  508. 

Trolley  railways  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2945. 

Tramways,  XXIII.  506;  early  tramroads,  XX.  223. 

Cable  roads,  sup.  644. 

Elevated  street  railroads,  sup.  2499  5    XX.  240. 

Atmospheric  railways,  III.  36. 

Switches,  XX.  237. 

Switch  mechanism,  sup.  2839. 

Locking  mechanism  for  railroad  switches,  sup.  1903. 

Railroad  frog,  sup.  1345. 

The  block  system  of  railroad  signals,  sup.  500. 

III.    ENGINES   AND   ROLLING-STOCK. 

Locomotives,  XX.  244;  XXII.  520. 
Latest  improvements  in  locomotives,  sup.  1904. 
Mogul  engines,  sup.  2493. 
Mathias  W.  Baldwin,  sup.  325. 
Traction- engines,  XXII.  522. 
Traction  on  railroads,  XX.  246. 

Electricity  as  a  motor,  sup.  2499.     (See  also  references 
in  the  chapter  entitled  The  Electrician^} 
Application  of  electricity,  XX.  250. 


2/2  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Electric  cars,  sup.  695. 

Railroad  carriages  and  cars,  XX.  247. 

Latest  improvements  in  passenger  cars,  sup.  2494. 

George  M.  Pullman,  sup.  2477. 

Freight  cars,  sup.  2495. 

Railroad  speed,  sup.  2496. 

Speed  recorder,  sup.  2764. 

Safety  appliances,  sup.  2495. 

The  Westinghouse  brake,  XX.  249. 

Railway  brakes,  XX.  240. 

Standard  air  brake,  sup.  547. 

Snow-plows,  sup.  2741. 

American  Railway  Union,  sup.  1005,  1817. 
John  Henry  Devereaux,  sup.  1036. 
Eugene  V.  Debs,  sup.   1005. 

See,  also,  the  chapters  in  this  volume  entitled   The  In- 
ventor',  The  Engineer ;  The  Machinist,  and  The  Mechanic. 


THE   SOLDIER.  273 


CHAPTER  XLI. 

THE   SOLDIER. 

"  In  books  warlike  affairs  are  methodized  ;  the  rights  of  peace  pro- 
ceed from  books." — Richard  de  Bury. 

I.    WAR 

AMONG  the  many  articles  in  the  Britannica  which  are  of 
especial  interest  to  the  soldier,  perhaps  there  is  none  of 
greater  practical  value  than  that  on  War,  XXIV. 
343-366.     This  is,   in   short,  a  comprehensive 
treatise  on  the  effective  organization  and  em- 
ployment of  armies  in  active  warfare.     To  offi- 
cers in  the  military  service  its  importance  will  be  at  once 
apparent.     The  first  section  of  the  article  is  of  an  historical 
character,  and  will  appeal  to  the  interest  of  the  non-mili- 
tary reader  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  soldier.     Other  sec- 
tions relate  to  strategy,  page  349 ;  infantry  tactics,  page 
354 ;  cavalry  tactics,  page  358  ;  and  artillery  tactics,  page  359. 
It  concludes  with  a  special  chapter  on  naval  strategy  and 
tactics,  page  363.     See  Declaration  of  War,  sup.  101 1  ;  and 
War  Department,  sup.  3079. 

II.    ARMIES. 

The  article  ARMY,   II.   559-619,13  of  no  less  interest. 

The  history  of  the  armies  of  ancient  and  ^nediaeval  times, 

which  occupies  the  first  four  pages,  is  of  im- 

The  Army,    portance  to  every  student.     This  is  followed  by 

other  historical  sections  equally  valuable  —  as, 

Modern  armies,    page  563  ;    the  British  army,  page  568. 

18 


2/4  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

After  this,  the  great  armies  of  the  world  are  each  described 
in  a  separate  chapter : 

British  army,  II.  572  ;  its  present   condition,  sup.  1450. 

German  army,  II.  593. 

French  army,  II.  600. 

Austrian  army,  II.  604. 

Russian  army,  II.  608. 

Italian  army,  II.  612. 

Army  of  modern  Greece,  sup.  1458. 

Other  European  armies,  II.  614. 

Army  of  the  United  States,  II.  619,  with  a  supplemen- 
tary article  giving  the  latest  statistics,  sup.  238. 

Army  regulations,  II.  147;  sup.  241. 

III.   ARMS   AND   ARMOR. 

Arms  and  armor  (an  historical  article  with  illustrations), 

n.  553-558. 

History  of  the  sword,  XXII.  800. 

Bows  and  arrows,  II.  371. 

Gunnery,  XL  297-315,  and  sup.  1493. 

Gun-making,  XI.  278-296. 

Machine-guns,  sup.  1481. 

Great         Improvements  in  military  rifles,  sup.  1482. 
Guns.         Rapid-firing  guns,  sup.  1481. 
Small-calibre  rifles,  sup.  1485. 

Heavy  ordnance,  sup.  1485. 

Service  guns  of  the  United  States,  sup.  1490. 

The  Rodman  guns,  sup.  2564. 

The  Krupp  guns,  sup.  1809. 

The  Maxim  guns,  sup.  2018. 

Dynamite  gun,  sup.  1102. 

Gatling  gun,  sup.  1373. 

Chassepot  gun,  sup.  759. 

Improvements  in  gunpowders,  sup.  1494. 


THE   SOLDIER.  2/5 

Arsenals,  sup.  248  ;  II.  632. 
Velocity  of  projectiles,  sup.  1493. 
Greek  fire,  XI.  159. 
Ammunition,  I.  744. 
The  range-finder,  sup.  2509. 

IV.    THE   PROFESSION   OF  ARMS. 

Roman  equites,  VIII.  509. 
Feudal  military  service,  XIV.  1 14. 
Knighthood,  XIV.  no. 
Gentlemen-at-arms,  sup.  1379. 
Gendarmerie,  X.  142. 

Condottiere,  VI.  256. 
Military  Chasseurs,  sup.  759. 

Companies.        Cuirassiers,  sup.  962. 

Militia,  sup.  2064. 
The  signal  service,  sup.  2715. 
Coast-guard,  sup.  847,  2510. 
The  Black  watch,  sup.  487. 
Aldershot  Camp,  sup.  I.  474. 

Enlistment,  VIII.  446. 
Military  costumes,  VI.  447. 

Barracks,  III.  390. 
Military          Desertion,  sup.  1034. 
Law,  etc.         Military  law,  XVI.  295. 

Martial  law,  sup.  2002. 

Military  academies  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2061. 
Military  colleges  and  schools,  sup.  2063. 
Legion  of  Honor,  XIV.  417. 
Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  sup.  1438. 
Pensions,  sup.  2344. 
Soldiers'  Homes,  sup.  2742. 


276  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

V.   IN  ACTIVE   SERVICE. 

Militia,  XVI.  299. 

Infantry,  II.  580. 

Cavalry,  V.  261. 

Artillery,  II.  655  ;  American  artillery,  sup.  255. 

Battery,  III.  443. 

Battle,  III.  443-445- 

Bombardment,  sup.  514. 
Battle. 

Escalade,  sup.  1215. 

Fortification,  IX.  421-468. 
Blockhouse,  sup.  500. 
Pontoon,  XIX.  456. 
Ambulance,  I.  665. 
Forage,  sup.  1304. 
Armistice,  II.  552. 
Blockade,  Law  of,  sup.  499. 

VI.   FORTY   WARS. 

Trojan  War  (B.C.  1193),  XX.  637. 
Peloponnesian  War,  XL  102  ;  XVIII.  533. 
Persian  War  (B.C.  490),  VI.  825,  827. 
Wars  of  Alexander  (B.  C.  336-332),  I.  480. 
The  Punic  Wars  (B.  C.  264-149),  V.  161. 
War  between  Caesar  and  Pompey  (B.  C.  48),  IV.  638. 
Mohammed's  Wars  (A.  D.  623-629),  XVI.  546. 
Charlemagne's  War  (A.  D.  775-800),  V.  402  ;  XIII.  468  ; 
XXL  351. 

Danish  Invasions  of  England  (835-905),  I.  506. 

Wars  of  Jenghis  Khan,  thirteenth  century,  XVI.  565. 

The  Crusades,  1190-1250,  VI.  622. 

The  Hundred  Years'  War,  IX.  545. 

King  Edward's  War  with  Scotland,  XX.  592. 

War  of  the  Roses  (1455-1471),  VIII.  327-329. 

The  Spanish  War  (Spanish  Armada)  1588,  II.  543. 


THE  SOLDIER.  277 

The  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-1648),  IX.  568. 
Wars  of  Cromwell  (1642-1657),  VI.  597. 
The  English  Revolution  of  1688,  VIII.  351. 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  (1704-1708),  III.  126. 
The  Scots'  Rebellion  (1745-1746),  V.  426. 
Seven  Years'  War  (1756-1763),  III.  127. 
American  Revolution  (1775-1783)^11!.  357;    XXIII. 
741. 

French  Revolution  (1792-1798),  IX.  596. 

Wars  of  Napoleon  (1798-1815),  XVII.  192. 

War  of  1812  (1812-1815),  XXIII.  757. 

Greek  War  for  Independence,  XL  102. 

Black  Hawk  War  (1832),  XXIII.  763. 

Seminole  War  (1835-1842),  XXIII.  759. 

The  Irish  Rebellion  (1798),  III.  271. 

Mexican  War  (1846-1848),  XXIII.  766. 

Russo-Turkish  war  (1853-1855),  IX.  623. 

Indian  Mutiny  (1857-1859),  II.  591. 

Italian  War  (1859),  XIII.  490. 

American  Civil  War  (1861-1865),  XXIII.  772-784. 

Prussia's  War  against  Denmark,  X.  502. 

Austro-Prussian  War  (1866),  X.  503. 

Franco-German  War  (1870),  X.  512. 

Italian  War  for  Unification,  XIII.  466. 

Chilian  War  (1891),  sup.  789. 

Corean  War  (1895),  sup.  917. 

The  Armenian  Massacres  of  1896,  sup.  2961. 

VII.    FIFTY  FAMOUS   BATTLES. 

Marathon  (B.  c.  490),  XI.  99. 
Thermopylae  (B.  C.  480),  XI.  100. 
Salamis  (B.  C.  480),  XXI.  205  ;  XI.  100. 
Cunaxa  (B.  c.  401),  VI.  753. 
Arbela  (B.C.  331),  I.  482. 


2/8  GUIDE  TO   THE    BRITANNICA. 

Caudine  Forks  (B.  c.  321),  XX.  742. 
Drepanum  (B.  c.  249),  XXIII.  522. 

Philippi  (B.  c.  42),  XVIII.  746. 

Great  Actium  (B.  C  31.),  I.  418. 

Battles.         Siege  of  Jerusalem  (A.  D.  70),  XIII.  428. 

Adrianople  (A.  D.  378),  XXIV.  36. 
Chalons-sur-Marne  (A.  D.  451),  V.  378. 
Soissons  (A.  D.  486),  IX.  528. 
Tours  (732),  V.  428. 
Roncesvalles  (778),  XX.  626. 
Dunsinane  (1054),  XVIII.  667. 
Hastings  (1060),  VIII.  291  ;  XXII.  725. 
Evesham  (1265),  XVI.  788. 
Bannockburn  (1314),  VII.  683. 
Cressy  (1346),  VII.  686. 
Poitiers  (1356),  VII.  686. 
Sempach  (1386),  XV.  40;  XXII.  784. 
Otterburn  (1388),  XXI. 490. 
Agincourt  (1415),  I.  282. 
Flodden  Field  (1515),  XIII.  557. 
Ivry  (1590),  IX.  564. 
Naseby  (1645),  VI.  599. 
Worcester  (1651),  VI.  601. 
Boyne  (1690),  XIII.  268. 
Blenheim  (1704),  III.  126. 
Pultowa  (1709),  V.  421. 
Culloden  (1746),  VI.  696. 
Quebec  (1759),  IX.  590;  XXIV.  630. 
Lexington  (1775),  XXIII.  740. 
Bunker  Hill  (1775),  XXIII.  740. 
Saratoga  (1777),  XXIII.  744. 
Yorktown  (1781),  VI.  428  ;  XXIII.  745. 
Hohenlinden  (1800),  III.  132. 
Austerlitz  (1805),  III.  132,444. 


THE   SOLDIER.  2/9 

Jena  (1806),  XVII.  210. 

Waterloo  (1815),  III.  442. 

Vera  Cruz  (1847),  XXIV.  162. 

Balaklava  (1855),  VI.  587. 

Siege  of  Lucknow  (1857),  XII.  810. 

Solferino  (1859),  ni-  J39J  IX-  524- 

Bull  Run  (1861),  XXIII.  775,  777;  sup.  617. 

Vicksburg  (1863),  XXIII.  778,  780. 

Gettysburg  (1863),  III.  444;  sup.  1390. 

Sadowa(i866),  XIV.  138. 

Gravelotte  (1870),  sup.  1447. 

Sedan  (1870),  IX.  627. 

VIII.    BATTLES   OF  THE   CIVIL  WAR. 

Antietam  (Sept.  16-17,  1862),  sup.  197. 

Ball's  Bluff  (1861),  XXIII.  776. 

Bull  Run  (July  21,  1861,  and  Aug.  29,  1862),  sup.  617. 

Chancellorsville  (May  2-3,  1863),  XXIII.  780. 

Chickamauga  (Sept.  18-19,  1863),  sup.  785. 

Chattanooga  (1863),  sup.  761. 

Corinth  (Oct.  4,  1862),  XXIII.  779. 

Fort  Donelson  (Feb.,  1862),  sup.  1065. 

Fair  Oaks  (May  31,  1862),  sup.  1239. 

Five  Forks  (April  I,  1865),  sup.  1284. 

Franklin  (Nov.  30,  1864),  sup.  1329. 

Fredericksburg  (Dec.,  1862),  sup.  1334. 

Gaines's  Mill  (June  27,  1862),  sup.  1357. 

Gettysburg  (July  1-3,  1863),  sup.  1390. 

Malvern  Hill  (July  I,  1862),  sup.  1977. 

Pittsburg  Landing  (April  6-7,  1862),  sup.  2397. 

Spottsylvania  Court  House  (May  7-12,  1864),  sup.  2770. 

Siege  of  Vicksburg,  sup.  3040. 

Surrender  of  Vicksburg  (July  4,  1863),  XXIII.  780. 

The  Wilderness  Campaign  (1864),  sup.  3151. 


28O  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

IX.    SEA   FIGHTS. 

Spanish  Armada  (1588),  II.  543. 

Battle  of  the  Nile  (1798),  VIII.  363. 

Battle  of  Trafalgar  (1805),  VI.  146;  XVII.  343, 

Monitor  and  Merrimac  (1862),  XXIII.  777. 

X.   TWENTY-FIVE   GREAT   SOLDIERS. 

Cyrus  the  Great,  VI.  752. 

Alexander  the  Great,  I.  480. 

Hannibal,  XL  441. 

Scipio  Africanus,  XXI.  467. 

Julius  Caesar,  IV.  632. 

Charlemagne,  V.  402. 

Jenghis  Khan,  XIII.  620. 

William  the  Conqueror,  XXIV.  574. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  VI.  624. 

Saladin,  XVI.  588. 

Robert  Bruce,  XX.  592. 

The  Black  Prince,  VII.  686. 

Earl  Warwick,  XXIV.  381. 

Oliver  Cromwell,  VI.  597. 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  XI.  333. 

Peter  the  Great,  XVIII.  698. 

Frederick  the  Great,  IX.  735. 

Marlborough,  XV.  553. 

General  Washington,  XXIV.  387. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  (see  Index  volume). 

The  Duke  of  Wellington,  XXIV.  493. 

Ulysses  S.  Grant,  sup.  1442. 

Robert  E.  Lee,  XIV.  399. 

Count  von  Moltke,  sup.  2088. 

"  Chinese  Gordon,"  sup.  1425. 


THE  AMERICAN   CITIZEN.  28 1 


CHAPTER  XLIL 

THE   AMERICAN   CITIZEN. 

"  The  worth  of  a  State  in  the  long  run  is  the  worth  of  the  individuals 
composing  it." — -John  Stuart  Mill. 

IT  is  proposed  in  this  chapter  to  indicate  a  few  of  the 
leading  articles  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  which  re- 
late to  the  science  of  government,  and  which  are  therefore 
of  especial  interest  and  value  to  every  citizen  who  has  a 
voice  in  the  conduct  of  public  affairs,  no  less  than  to  stu- 
dents, professional  politicians,  and  statesmen. 

Let  us  take  as  the  basis  of  our  studies  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,  the  full  text  of  which  is  given  in  the 
American  Supplements,  page  900.  Read  next  the  article 
CONSTITUTION  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  LAW,  VI.  309,  from 
which  you  may  derive  some  idea  of  the  English  Constitu- 
tion and  of  the  points  wherein  it  differs  from  our  own. 
Then  the  following  courses  of  reading  may  be  taken  up, 
either  independently  or  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
here  mentioned : 

I.   ON   GOVERNMENT  IN   GENERAL. 

GOVERNMENT,  XI.  9-21.     This  is  a  thoughtful  and  in- 
teresting article  (i)  on  the  forms  of  government,  (2)  on 
-the  sphere  of  government.     Under  the  first  di- 
Forms  of     v{s}on  js  an  account  of  the  three  standard  forms 

Govern- 

ment.       of  government,  the  monarchy,  the  aristocracy, 

and  the  republic.     Then  follow  chapters  on  : 
The  government  of  Rome,  page  11. 


282  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Feudalism,  page  II. 
Parliamentary  government,  page  12. 
Cabinet  government,  page  13. 

The  relation  between  government  and  laws,  page  14. 
Under  the  second  division  the  following  topics  are  dis- 
cussed : 

Judicature,  page  15. 

State  and  Church,  page  16. 
Sphere  of        The  laissez-faire  theory,  page  17. 
Government.      Education  and  labor,  page  18. 
Federal  government,  page  20. 

Among  the  numerous  shorter  articles  on  special  divi- 
sions of  the  subject,  the  following  deserve  careful  reading  : 
Patriarchal  government,  XVIII.  410. 

MONARCHY,    XI.   ii;  monarchy    in    ancient 
Monarchy.      Rome,  XX.  732. 

Emperor,  VIII.  179;  empire,  VIII.  181. 
House  of  Lords,  VIII.  259. 
House  of  Commons,  VIII.  260. 
Titles  of  honor,  XXIII.  417. 
Coronation,  VI.  429. 

Parliament,  XVIII.  302  ;  powers  and  privileges  of  par- 
liament, page  310. 

Parliamentary  procedure,  XVIII.  311. 

Act  of  Parliament,  I.  122. 

British  Cabinet,  IV.  619. 

Budget,  IV.  439. 

ARISTOCRACY. — Nobility,  XVII.  524. 

The  government  of  Venice,  page  527. 
Aristocracy,  The  nobility  of  England,  page  529. 
etc.          The  Polish  aristocracy,  page  530. 

Peerage,  XVIII.  458. 
REPUBLIC,  XI.  11. 
Ancient  Roman  republic,  XX.  735. 


THE   AMERICAN   CITIZEN.  283 

French  republic,  IX.  597. 

The  republic  and  socialism,  XXI.  221. 

Socialism,  XXII.  205. 

Anarchism,  sup.  175. 

II.    HISTORY   OF  AMERICAN   POLITICS. 

1 .  Foundation  Principles  : 

Declaration  of  Independence  (full  text),  sup.  1010. 
Articles  of  Confederation  (full  text),  sup.  252. 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  (full  text),  sup.  goo. 

2.  Political  Parties  : 
Federalist  Party,  sup.  1253. 
Anti-Federal  Party,  sup.  198. 
Democratic  Party,  sup.  1023;   XXIII.  755. 
Whig  Party,  sup.  3137. 

Free-Soil  Party,  sup.  1338. 

Anti-Masonic  Party,  sup.  198. 
Political  Native  American  and  Know-Nothing  Party, 

Parties.  sup.   165. 

Republican  Party,  XXIII.  757 ;  sup.  2535. 
Greenback  Party,  sup.  1461,  1818. 
People's  Party,  sup.  1819. 
Labor  parties,  sup.  1817. 
Socialistic  Labor  Party,  sup.  1819. 
Mugwumps,  sup.  2123. 
Prohibition  Party,  sup.  2453. 

3.  Departments  of  Government. 

(i).   Executive  Department,  sup.  1228. 

Presidential  Elections,  sup.  2987. 

Powers  of  the  President,  XXIII.  750. 

Department  of  State,  sup.  2779.  ^SJ^^A, -R 

Treasury  Department,  sup.  2937. 


1 


284  GUIDE  TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 

War  Department,  sup.  3079. 

Department  of  the  Interior,  sup.  1686. 
The          Department  of  Justice,  sup.  1843. 
President.       Veto,  XXIV.  206  ;   XXIII.  749. 

Casting  vote,  sup.  720. 
List  of  Presidents,  XXIII.  787. 

(2).  Legislative  Department — Congress  of  the 
Congress.      United  States,  sup.  891. 

History  of  Congress,  sup.  2984. 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  XXIII.  749. 
The  franking  privilege,  sup.  1328. 

(3).  Judicial  Department — Supreme  Court  of 
Supreme        tne  United  States,  II.  210  ;  XIII.  789 ;  sup.  2824. 
Court.  See  the  chapter  in   this  GUIDE  entitled  The 

Lawyer. 

4.  Citizenship. 

Citizenship  in  the  United  States,  sup.  808. 
Immigration  into  the  United  States,  sup.  1657. 
Naturalization,  sup.  2140. 
Allegiance,  I.  580. 

Qualifications  of  voters  in  the  different  States,  sup.  1131. 
Electors,  sup.  1132. 

T,1     .  Ballot    III.    288;  Australian    ballot  system, 

Elections.  ' 

sup.  329. 

Voting-machine,  sup.  3062. 

Elections,  VIII.  2;  election  laws  in  the  States,  sup. 
1131  ;  primary  elections,  sup.  2444. 

State  governments,  XXII.  458. 

Local  governments— the  borough,  IV.  62  ;  trie  town, 
XXIII.  731. 

Civil  rights,  sup.  811. 

Disfranchisement,  sup.  236. 

See  especially  Civics,  sup.  809. 


THE  AMERICAN  CITIZEN.  285 

5.  Relations  with  other  Governments. 
Treaties,  XXIII.  530. 
Alliance,  I.  585. 
Ambassadors,  I.  657;  sup.  149. 
Ministers,  XVI.  472. 
Consuls,  V.  315. 
Diplomacy,  VII.  251. 
Diplomatic  agents,  sup.  1051. 

6.  Miscellaneous  Topics: 
Archons  (Greek),  II.  476. 
Exarchs,  VIII.  783. 
Ephori,  VIII.  469. 
^Ediles  (Roman),  I.  180. 
Quaestors,  XX.  145. 
Comitia,  VI.  194. 
Althing,  sup.  144. 

Amnesty,  I.  746. 

Reconstruction,  sup.  2518. 

Finances  of  the  United  States,  sup.  1267;  national 
debts,  XII.  889;  debt  of  the  United  States,  sup.  1005; 
debts  of  various  countries,  sup  1007. 

See  The  Banker  and  Financier,  in  this  GUIDE. 

Indian  affairs  of  the  United  States,  XII.  822-833;  sup. 
1665. 

7.  Important  Passages  in  the  Political  History  of  the 
United  States: 

Declaration  of  Independence,  XIII.  614. 
Alien  and  Sedition  laws,  sup.  126. 
Whisky  rebellion,  sup.  3138. 
Monroe  Doctrine,  sup.  2091. 
Dorr's  Rebellion,  sup.  1068. 
Missouri  Compromise,  XXIII.  761,  772. 


286  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Annexation  of  Texas,  XXIII.  202. 

Mexican  war,  XXIII.  767. 

Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  XXIII.  770. 

Slavery  in  the  United  States,  XXII.  141. 

John  Brown's  raid,  IV.  385  ;  XL  490;  XXIII.  772. 

Civil  War,  XIV.  659. 

Draft  riots  of  1863,  sup.  1075. 

Reconstruction,  sup.  2518,  XXIII.  784-787. 

Cre"dit-Mobilier  scandal,  sup.  939. 

Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  (relating  to  ship  canals),  sup.  825. 

Chinese  Exclusion  Act,  sup.  792,  2994. 

Behring  Sea  Question,  sup.  428,  2994. 

The  "Crime  of  1873, "sup.  942. 

Electoral  Commission  of  1877,  XXIII.  787;  sup.  1132. 

The  "  Force  Bill"  (Federal  Elections  bill),  sup.  1307. 

The  Fisheries  Question,  IX.  268,  269;  sup.  1280. 

Position  regarding  Hawaiian  independence,  sup.  1549. 

The  Venezuelan  Question,  sup.  2999. 

The  National  Election  in  1896,  sup.  3000. 

A  SHORT  COURSE  OF  READING  IN  POLITICAL  BIOGRAPHY. 

Aristides  (B.C.),  II.  504, 
Pericles  (B.  c.),  XVIII.  529. 

Cato  (B.  C.  95),  V.  240. 

Robert  the  Bruce  04th  century),  XX.  592. 
Statesen.        Oliver  Cromwell  (i7th  century),  VI.  597. 

Andreas  Hofer  (i8th  century),  XII.  44. 
George  Washington  (i8th  century),  XXIV.  387. 
Simon  Bolivar,  IV.  7. 
Giuseppe  Garibaldi,  XIII.  487. 

Sir  Thomas  More,  XVI.  815. 
John  Hampden,  XI.  428. 
Algernon  Sidney,  XVII.  33. 


THE  AMERICAN  CITIZEN.  287 

Lord  Bolingbroke,  IV.  4. 

Lord  Chatham,  V.  440. 

Edmund  Burke,  XVIII.  538. 

George  Canning,  IV.  809. 

William  Pitt,  XIX.   134. 

Sir  Robert  Peel,  XVIII.  452. 

Lord  Palmerston,  XVIII.  193. 

Benjamin  Disraeli  (Earl  Beaconsfield),  sup.  388. 

William  E  .Gladstone,  sup.  1404. 

Mirabeau,  XVI.  492. 

Due  de  Broglie,  IV.  359. 

Gambetta,  XVIII.  735. 

Prince  Bismarck,  XXV.  478. 

Samuel  Adams,  I.  143. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  XIII.  613. 

De  Witt  Clinton,  VI.  75. 

Albert  Gallatin,  X.  38. 

Andrew  Jackson,  XIII.  533. 

Thomas  H.  Benton,  sup.  423. 

Daniel  Webster,  XXVI.  471. 

William  Llyod  Garrison,  X.  85. 

Charles  Sumner,  XXII.  643. 

Jefferson  Davis,  XXIII.  773. 

Abraham  Lincoln,  XIV.  658. 

Charles  Francis  Adams,  sup.  43. 

James  G.  Elaine,  sup.  238. 

See,  also,  the  chapters  in  this  GUIDE  entitled,  respect- 
ively, The  Public  Speaker ',  The  Lawyer ;  and  The  Political 
Economist. 


288  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XLIII. 

THE  CANDIDATE   FOR  CIVIL  SERVICE. 
"  I  have  done  the  State  some  service,  and  they  know  it." — Othello. 

THE  first  practical  steps  toward  what  is  designated  as 
Civil  Service  Reform  were  taken  by  the  United  States 
Congress  in  1853,  when  it  passed  an  act  providing  for 
competitive  examinations  as  the  basis  of  ap- 
pointment to  any  place  in  the  four  great  classes 
Service  °^  clerkships  in  Washington.  Little  further 
progress  was  made  towards  freeing  the  execu- 
tive department  of  government  from  the  abuse  of  offi- 
cial patronage  until  the  year  1872,  when  President  Grant 
appointed  a  commission  to  devise  rules  and  regulations 
for  "  admission  to  and  continuance  in  the  civil  service  of 
the  United  States."  But  the  proposed  reform  met  with 
much  opposition  from  parties  who  were  interested  in  the 
continuance  of  the  "  spoils"  system,  and  it  was  still  several 
years  before  any  practical  application  of  such  rules  and 
regulations  could  be  made.  During  the  administration 
of  President  Hayes,  in  1879,  tne  system  of  competitive 
examinations  was  made  applicable  to  a  few  of  the  largest 
post-offices,  including  the  post-office  in  New  York. 
Through  the  persistent  efforts  of  the  opponents  of  official 
corruption,  an  act  of  Congress  was  passed  in  1883  pro- 
viding for  the  appointment  of  three  Civil  Service  Com- 
missioners, who  should  aid  the  President  in  prescribing 
rules  for  admission,  by  examination,  into  certain  branches 


THE   CANDIDATE   FOR  CIVIL   SERVICE.  289 

of  the  civil  service.  This  act  further  empowered  the 
President  to  revise  or  modify  the  rules  from  time  to  time, 
thus  enabling  him  to  extend  the  system  of  competitive 
examinations  as  rapidly  as  in  his  judgment  would  conduce 
to  the  public  welfare.  (See  sup.  2994.) 

On  the  9th  of  May,  1896,  the  President  extended  the 
provisions  of  the  civil-service  law  to  30,000  additional 
Government  employees,  thus  increasing  the  number  of 
positions  on  the  classified  lists  to  85,135. 

So  many  governmental  positions  being  now  obtainable, 

not  by  personal  favor  or  the  influence   of  friends,  but   by 

absolute  proofs   of  ability  to   fill  them,  it  has 

Examina-      become  the  laudable  ambition  of  thousands  of 

t'ons.  young  men  and  young  women  to  pass  the  civil- 
service  examinations,  and  thus  place  their 
names  upon  the  lists  of  available  candidates.  Changes  in 
the  service  are  constantly  taking  place  ;  vacancies  in  all 
departments  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  About  six 
thousand  new  appointments  to  the  service  of  the  Govern- 
ment are  made  every  year.  As  a  rule,  the  candidate 
whose  grade  in  examination  is  the  highest  is  the  first  to 
be  appointed. 

It  is  evident  that  to  pass  one  of  these  competitive  ex- 
aminations   even    creditably,    the  candidate  must    make 
some  preparation  :  he  must  know  what  are  the  subjects 
he  will  be  examined  upon,  and  he  must  study  these  sub- 
jects with   special    care.     Now   it   is  a    fact  well  worth 
noticing  that  there  is  no   other  single  book  in 
Bn~    the  world  that  contains  so  much    information 

tannica"  a  1t  . 

Helper       On  a^  SUDjects  as  the  Encyclopedia  Bmtanmca  ; 
and  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  present  chapter  to 
show  how  the  candidate  for  any  branch  of  the  civil  service 
may  utilize  its  information  so  as  to  obtain  therefrom  much 
practical  knowledge  in  preparing  for  the  examinations. 
19 


290  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


A.   THE   FEDERAL   SERVICE. 

All  persons  who  assist  in  the  conducting  of  the  govern- 
ment   of   the    United    States  may    be   said  to  be  in  the 
service   of  the   nation.     There   are  three  gen- 
ltlve      eral  branches  or  departments  of  government : 

ment  ^he  Legislative  Department,  sup.  891. 

The  Judicial  Department,  sup.  2824. 

The  Executive  Department  sup.  1228. 

Read  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  sup.  900. 

Civil  service,  as  generally  understood,  has  reference 
only  to  service  in  the  executive  department  of  the  Govern- 
ment. In  this  department  there  are  also  two  other 
branches  of  service  : 

The  military  service.     (See  The  Soldier,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

The  naval  service.     (See  The  Seaman,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

By  an  Executive  order  issued  by  the  President,  No- 
vember 2,  1896,  the  employees  of  the  Navy  Yard  are 
practically  included  within  the  classified  service.  In  the 
War  Department,  also,  about  10,000  employees  are  now 
subject  to  the  civil  service  regulations.  Half  of  this  num- 
ber are  employed  under  the  Chief  of  Engineers  in  the 
improvement  of  rivers,  harbors,  and  fortifications.  (See 
The  Engineer,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

Members  and  employees  of   Congress,  ministers,  most 

of  the  foreign  consuls,  collectors  of  revenue,  postmasters, 

and  many  others,  including  more  than  100,000 

persons,  belong  to  the  unclassified  service,  and 
Exceptions.  .  ...  .  .    A . 

are  exempt  from   the  civil-service  regulations. 

It  is  of  those  only  who  are  engaged  in  the 
classified  service  that  we  shall  speak  in  this  chapter. 

The  classified  service,  for  which  examinations  are  held, 
is  divided  into  five  distinct  branches : 

(i)  The  Departmental  Service,  which  includes  officers 


THE   CANDIDATE   FOR   CIVIL   SERVICE.  2QI 

and  employees  (except  laborers  and  persons  who  have 
been  nominated  for  confirmation)  in  the  several 
Divisions  executive  departments  of  the  District  of  Co- 
Service  lumbia  (VI.  168 ;  sup.  1054),  the  railway  mail 
service  (sup.  2490),  the  Indian  service  (sup. 
1665),  the  pension  agencies  (sup.  3344),  the  steamboat  in- 
spection service  (sup.  2781),  the  lighthouse  service  (sup. 
1885),  the  life-saving  service  (sup.  1882),  the  mints  and 
assay-offices  (II.  724;  XVI.  480),  the  revenue-cutter  ser- 
vice, the  sub-treasuries  of  the  United  States  (sup.  2937), 
the  engineer  departments,  and  all  officers  and  employees 
of  the  executive  department  outside  of  the  District  of 
Columbia  who  are  employed  as  clerks,  physicians,  nurses, 
draftsmen,  engineers,  watchmen,  messengers,  or  firemen, 
or  who  are  in  the  service  of  the  Supervising  Architect's 
Office,  or  in  the  service  of  the  Treasury  Department  (sup. 

2937)- 

(2)  The  Custom-house  service,  which  includes  all  offi- 
cers and  employees    in   any  customs   district  whose  em- 
ployees number  as  many  as  five  (VI.  729). 

(3)  The    Post-office  service,  which  includes  all  officers 
and  employees  in  any  free  delivery  post-office. 

(4)  The  Government  Printing  service,  and 

(5)  The   Internal   Revenue    service,   which  includes  all 
officers  and  employees  engaged  in  these   branches  of  ser- 
vice, except  such  as  have  been  declared  not  subject  to  the 
civil-service  rules. 

To  test  an  applicant's  fitness  for  a  position  in  any  of  the 
five  branches  of  service  named  above,  examinations  are 

held  under  the  direction  of. the  commission. 
Examina-  The  examination  papers  are  rated  on  a  scale  of 
tion  Papers.  ioo,  and  70  marks  or  over  are  considered  as 

entitling  the  candidate  to  eligibility  for  appoint- 
ment. But,  as  already  observed,  those  who  receive  the 


GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

first  appointments  are  those  who  stand  the  highest  in  the 
examinations. 

I.   THE   DEPARTMENTAL   SERVICE. 

There  are  many  positions  in  this  service,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  are  the  following :  Clerk-copyist,  messenger, 
watchman,  typewriter,  stenographer,  printer's  assistant, 
proof-reader,  telegraph  operator,  special  pension  examiner, 
state  department  clerk,  bookkeeper,  weather  observer, 
draftsman,  meat  inspector,  fish  culturist,  tagger,  stock 
examiner,  engineer  and  machinist,  railway  mail  clerk,  and 
teachers,  physicians,  nurses,  and  others  employed  in  the 
Indian  service. 

What  is  the  character  of  the  examinations  for  eligibility 
to  these  positions  ? 

How  can  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  aid  candidates 
who  are  preparing  for  these  examinations  ? 

The  clerk-copyist  is  examined  in  orthography,  penman- 
ship, copying,  letter-writing,  and  arithmetic. 

The  examination  in  orthography  includes  the  writing 

of  twenty  or  more  difficult   words  from  dictation  by  the 

examiner.     The  mark  on  penmanship  is  determined  by 

legibility,  rapidity,  neatness,  and  general  appearance,  and 

by  correctness  and  uniformity  in  the  formation 

Clerk-          of  words,  letters,  and  punctuation  marks.     In 

Copyist.        copying,  the  candidate  is  required  to  make  a  fair 

copy  of  a  rough-draft  manuscript,  punctuating 

and  capitalizing  properly,  and  writing  in  full  all  abbreviated 

words.  (See  the  references  to  punctuation  and  capitalization 

in  the  chapter  entitled  The  Writer,  in  this  GUIDE  ;  see  also 

the  lists  of  abbreviations  in  the  Britannica,  I.  26,  and  sup, 

16.)     The  letter-writing  is  intended  to  test  the  candidate's 

skill  in  simple  English  composition  (see  The  Writer,  in  this 

GUIDE).    In  marking  the  letter,  its  errors  in  form  and  ad- 


THE   CANDIDATE   FOR  CIVIL   SERVICE.  293 

dress  (sup.  46),  in  spelling,  and  in  punctuation  are  consid- 
ered. The  letter  must  relate  to  some  subject  given  by 
the  examiners,  as  for  example,  "  The  advantages  of  a 
common -school  education."  (See  The  Teacher,  in  this 
GUIDE.)  The  examination  in  arithmetic  consists  of  prob- 
lems involving  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  science. 
(See  references  on  page  131  of  this  GUIDE.) 

Nearly  all  other  competitors  for  employment  in  the  de- 
partmental service  are  examined  in  the  branches 

named  above.  Several,  such  as  the  typewriter, 
Typewriter. 

the  stenographer,  and  the  telegraph  operator, 

are  required  to  exhibit  practical  tests  of  their 
skill.  (See  The  Stenographer  and  Typewriter,  in  this 
GUIDE.) 

The  pension  examiner  is  examined  not  only  in  the  five 
subjects  mentioned,  but  in  law  and  pension  law. 

Sample  Questions  in  Law.     What  is  the  difference  be- 
tween primary  and  secondary  evidence  ?     (See  VIII.  173.) 
What  is  marriage,  and  what  are  impediments  to  lawful 
marriage?     (See  XV.  565  ;  XII.  400.) 

What  is  divorce?     (See  VII.  300-305.) 
Pension  (For  much  information  relative   to  pension 

Examiner.      law,  see  SUp.  2344.) 

The  State  Department  clerk  is  examined  in 
geography,  history,  international  law,  government.  The 
following  are  sample  questions  : 

Between  what  parallels  and  meridians  does  the  United 
States  extend?  (See  map,  XXIII.  790;  Paral- 
lels, XVIII.  254;  Meridians,  X.  198.) 

Geography 

What  are  the  boundaries  of  France  (IX.  504), 

of  Germany  (X.  448),  of  Ohio  (XVII.  736),  of 
Vermont  (XVII.  392)? 

(Study  the  references  in  the  Readings  in  Geography,  in 
this  GUIDE. 


294  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

What  circumstances  led  to  the  war  with  Mexico? 
(XXIII.  767.) 

Mention  the  leading  facts  in  the  life  of  Frank- 
lin.    (IX.  711.) 
History.  ,.  •      ,  .        .        , 

Name  the  political    parties  in  the   national 

election  of  1860.     (XXIII.  774  et  seq.} 
(Study  the  Readings  in  History,  Course  L,  in  this  Gu  I DE  ; 
also  The  American  Citizen?) 

What  is  international  law?  (XIII.  190;  XXII.  471.) 

Give  some  account  of  the  origin  and  mean- 
Interna-      ing   of   the    "  Monroe    doctrine."    (XIII.    192; 
tionalLaw.    XVI.  761  ;   XXIII.  762.) 

What  are  the    rules    regulating  sovereignty 
over  the  high  seas?     (XXIII.  195  ;  XXI.  583.) 

What  are  the  functions  and  powers  of  the  Secretary  of 

State?     (XXIII.  750.) 

Govern-         To  what  extent  are  the  various  States  of  the 
ment.        Union  sovereign  powers?     (XXXIII.  741,746, 

750,  756,  763,  774.) 

What  constitutes  a  treaty?     (XXIII.  530.) 
(Study  the  references  given  in  the  chapter  entitled  The 
American  Citizen,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

The  observer  in  the  weather  bureau  is  examined  in 
meteorology  and  physics,  as  well  as  in  the  five  general 
branches  previously  mentioned.  Some  of  the  questions 
are  similar  to  the  following  : 

Explain  how  a  barometer  may  be  used  in  determining 
the  height  of  a  mountain.  (III.  381  ;  XIX.  241.) 

How  are  the  freezing  and  boiling  points  of  a  thermome- 
ter determined  ?     (XXIII.  288  ;  XI.  563.) 

What  is  relative  humidity,  and  how  is  it  ob- 
Meteorology.  ta.ned?      (nL  33  .   xn>  ^ 

(See  Atmosphere,  III.  28,  381  ;  X.  211,  220; 
Meteorology,  XVI.  114;  Winds,  XVI.  143;   Temperature 


THE  CANDIDATE   FOR   CIVIL   SERVICE.  295 

(Heat),  XL  555  ;  Climate,  VI.  i  ;  Frost,  X.  265,  280;  Rain, 
XVI.  128;  Snow,  XVI.  154;  Corona,  VI.  428;  and  es- 
pecially the  Readings  in  Meteorology,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

What  is  meant  by  the  density  of  a  body,  and 
what  substance  is  taken  as  the  standard  of 
comparison  ?  (XV.  698  ;  VII.  241.) 

State  three  laws  of  falling  bodies.     (XL  68.) 

(See  Readings  in  Physics,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

The   topographic    draftsman    is  examined   specially  in 

geography,    scale    drawing,    and  geographic    projections. 

The  scale  drawing  consists  of  compiling,  on  an  enlarged 

scale,  a  chart,  a  copy  of  which  is  furnished  at 

the    time    of  examination.     (See  Cartography, 

Draftsman.     ,,.-,,.  ,-T,  ,  .      -,«-  -\T-TT 

XV.  515  ;    X.   191  ;    Topographic  Maps,  XV. 

522;  Drawing,  VII.  446;  XV.  628.)  Geo- 
graphic projections  relate  to  the  theory  of  polyconic  and 
Mercator  projections,  and  to  instruments  and  appliances 
necessary  to  construct  polyconic  projections.  (See  X. 
208,  209.) 

The  meat  inspector  is  examined  in  veterinary  anatomy 
and  physiology,  in  veterinary  pathology,  and  in  meat  in- 
spection. He  may  be  asked  many  questions  similar  to 
the  following : 

Name  and  give  the  situation  of  the  organs  which  should 
be  examined  for  the  detection  of  tuberculosis  in  cattle. 
(XXIV.  204.) 

What  are  the  symptoms  of  milk  or  parturient 

Meat         fever?     (XXIV.  204.) 

Inspection.        What  is  pus   made  up  of,  and  how   does  it 
appear  to  the  naked  eye  ?     (XXII.  683.) 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  good,  sound  flesh  meat  ? 
(XV.  782.) 

Describe  the  appearance  and  give  the  life  history  of 
trichinae?  (XVII.  325  ;  XXIV.  206.) 


296  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

(See,  also,  Animals,  II.  49;  Animal  Physiology,  XIX. 
10 ;  Animal  parasitism,  XVIII.  258;  Beef-measle,  XXIII. 
52;  Poisonous,  tainted,  or  diseased  meat,  XV.  782;  Dis- 
eases of  Cattle,  XVII.  57,  etc.  Also  the  chapter  entitled 
The  Stock  Raiser,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

The  fish  culturist  is  examined,  in  addition  to  other 
subjects,  in  geography  and  fish  culture.  The  questions  in 
geography  have  reference  principally  to  the  United 
States,  and  presuppose  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
lakes,  seas,  and  interways  of  the  western  continent.  The 
examination  in  fish  culture  is  intended  to  test  the  com- 
petitor's knowledge  concerning  the  geographi- 

Fish          cal  distribution  of  fishes  (XII.  668)  ;  definition 
Culture.       and  description  of  varieties  (XII.  685);  meth- 
ods of  reproduction  (XX.  409) ;  conditions  of 
successful  fish  culture  (XIX.    126;  XXI.  226);  transport 
of  fish  (IX.  243)  ;  propagation  of  different  species,  etc. 

(See  Salmon,  XXI.  220,  224,  226  ;  Shad,  XXL  726  ;  XII. 
694;  XIX.  128;  Pike,  XIX.  88;  Perch,  XVIII.  521; 
Trout,  XXL  221,  225,  etc.  Read  the  articles  on  Ang- 
ling, II.  32  ;  on  Fisheries,  IX.  243  ;  on  Ichthyology,  XII. 
630;  on  Aquariums,  II.  217;  etc.) 

The  engineer  and  machinist,  besides  being  examined  on 

the  five  general  subjects,  is  required  to  answer  questions 

in  regard  to  the  various  parts  of  an  engine  (XXII.  473— 

526),  and  the  construction  of  the  boiler  (XXII. 

Steam        49^) ;  and   to  exhibit  a  practical  knowledge  of 
Engine.       packing,  repairing  and  managing  engines  and 
boilers,     (See   the  chapter  entitled   The  Engi- 
neer, in  this  GUIDE.) 

The  railway  mail-clerk  is  examined  specially  in  the 
geography  of  the  United  States  (XXIII.  790) ;  in  railway 
and  other  systems  of  transportation  in  the  United  States, 
and  in  reading  addresses. 


THE   CANDIDATE   FOR   CIVIL   SERVICE.  297 

The  candidate  for  this  examination  will  find  many  arti- 
cles in  the  Britannica  that  will  be  of  assistance  to 
Railway      mm-    See  The  Railroad  Man,  in  this  GUIDE  ;  also 

Mail  Clerk.          Post-office,  XIX.  562. 

International  Postal  Union,  XIX.  584. 

Plan  of  U.  S.  postal  service,  XIX.  578. 

Post-offices  in  the  United  States,  sup.  24. 

Railways  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2490. 

His  examination  in  Arithmetic  may  embrace  some  such 
questions  as  this  :  A  railway  mail  clerk  decided  to  save  %  of 
his  salary  during  one  year,  but  instead,  he  saved  ^,  and 
found  that  during  the  year  he  had  saved  $30  more  than 
he  had  decided  to  save.  What  was  his  salary  ? 

The  Indian  Service.  The  examinations  for  this  service 
are  for  the  most  part  topical  rather  than  textual.  Instead 
of  questions,  the  candidate  is  given  topics  upon  which  to 
write  essays  or  to  prepare  lessons,  and  these  are  intended 
to  test  his  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  particularly  his 
ability  to  prepare  exercises  for  teaching. 

The  candidate  for  a  position  as  teacher  in  the  Indian 
schools  is  examined  in  penmanship,  orthography,  peda- 
gogy, arithmetic,  geometry,  geography,  natural  history, 
history  and  government  of  the  United  States,  drawing, 
American  literature,  and  physiology  and  hygiene. 

In  pedagogy  he  is  required  to  write  an  essay 

Indian        on  some  practical  pedagogic  question,  such  as  : 
Teacher.      "  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  periodi- 
cal   written  examinations  in   the   intermediate 
grades  of  school  work."     (See  The  Teacher,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

In  arithmetic,  besides  solving  given  problems,  he  is  re- 
quired to  write  his  opinions  upon  some  practical  teaching 
point,  as  :  "  The  proper  method  of  teaching  decimal  frac- 
tions to  children  9  to  12  years  of  age."  (See  The  Teacher, 
and  also  references  to  Arithmetic,  in  this  GUIDE.) 


298  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

In  geometry  he  is  required  to  write  an  essay  of  100 
to  150  words,  on  some  topic  assigned.  The  following 
topic  has  been  used  :  "  The  method  to  be  pursued  in  teach- 
ing a  knowledge  of  point,  line,  surface,  and  volume,  to  a 
class  of  pupils  in  the  intermediate  grade."  (See  Geom- 
etry, page  132,  in  this  GUIDE.)  • 

In  geography,  topics  like  the  following  are  to  be  written 
upon  :  "  What  plan  would  you  pursue  in  teaching  young 
pupils  a  knowledge  of  the  earth's  motions  and  the  loca- 
tion of  the  zones  of  climate  ?  "  (See  the  last  of  the  Courses 
of  Reading  in  Geography,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

In  natural  history,  topics  like  the  following  have  been 
used :  "  Your  method  of  imparting  to  advanced  classes  a 
knowledge  of  the  habits,  characteristics,  etc.,  of  the  family 
Ovida  (sheep)."  (See  XXI.  784;  XV.  432.  Make  use  of 
the  Readings  in  Zoology,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

In  American  history  and  government,  the  candidate 
is  required  to  write  an  essay  of  150  to  300  words  on  some 
such  topic  as  this;  "A  description  of  the  war  of  1812, 
written  in  a  manner  to  interest  children."  (See  The  Ameri- 
can Citizen,  also  Readings  in  History,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

In  American  literature  the  following  topic  has  been  used : 
"A  method  of  outlining  and  teaching  a  knowledge  of 
American  literature  to  advanced  primary  pupils."  (See 
Readings  in  Literature,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

In  physiology  and  hygiene,  an  essay  is  required  on  some 
such  topic  as  this  :  "  The  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene 
of  respiration,  as  you  would  explain  them  to  a  class  of 
pupils  in  intermediate  grades."  (See  Anatomy,  I.  799- 
908;  Physiology,  XIX.  8-43;  Hygiene,  XII. '566,  etc. 
Also  The  Physician,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

The  candidate  for  a  position  as  physician  in  the  Indian 
service  is  examined  specially  in  anatomy  and  physiology, 
in  chemistry,  materia  medica,  and  therapeutics,  in  gen- 


THE   CANDIDATE    FOR   CIVIL   SERVICE.  299 

eral  pathology  and  theory  and  practice  of  medicine,    in 
surgery,  in  medical  jurisprudence,  toxicology, 

Indian       and  hygiene,  and  in  obstetrics.     (See  The  Phy- 
Physician.     sician,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

Sample  Questions:  Describe  the  location  and 
course  of  the  popliteal  artery.    (I.  904.) 

Give  the  origins  and  attachments  of  the  biceps  muscle. 
(I.  839.) 

What  is  iron  rust  chemically?     (XIII.  279.) 

Give  the  differential  diagnosis  of  rubeola  and  scarlatina. 
(XV.  657;  XXI.  376;  XVIII.  404.) 

What  is  dysentery?    (VII.  584.) 

How  may  cicitrization  be  hastened  after  a  burn  in  which 
the  skin  has  been  destroyed  ?  (XXII.  680.) 

Give  the  characteristic  features  of  poisoning  by  phos- 
phorus. (XIX.  279.) 

The  Industrial  teacher  and  farmer  in  the  Indian  service 

must  pass  examination  in  penmanship,  orthography,  farm 

economy,  keeping  accounts,   and  practical    farming.     In 

farm  economy  he  must  answer  five  questions   on  the  care 

and  use  of  the  more  common  tools,  mechanical 

Indian       appliances,    etc.,    connected   with    farm  work. 
Farmer.      (See  I.  311-328.)     In  practical  farming  he  must 
answer  five  questions  relative  to  general  farm- 
ing   and    gardening    operations,  care   of   live-stock,    etc. 
(See  the  chapters  in  this  GUIDE  entitled,  respectively,  The 
Farmer,  The  Gardener,  and  The  Stock  Raiser^) 

II.    THE   CUSTOM-HOUSE   SERVICE. 

In  the  Custom-house  service,  examinations  are  held  for 
clerks,  law  clerks,  day  and  night  inspectors,  inspectresses, 
messengers,  weighers,  gaugers,  examiners,  and  samplers. 
All  are  examined  in  orthography,  copying,  penmanship, 
and  arithmetic. 


300  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

The  candidate  for  clerk  is  examined  specially  in  the  Ele- 
ments   of   the    English  language    (VIII.     390, 
XVIII.  782,   787);  in   letter -writing  (see    The 
Writer,    in   this    GUIDE);    in    the  elements  of 
geography  (see  Readings  in   GeograpJiy,  in  this 
GUIDE);  and  in  the  history  and  government  of  the  United 
States  (see  The  American  Citizen,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

The  candidate  for  customs  law  clerk  is  examined  spe- 
cially in  the  elements  of  the  English  language  ;  in  letter- 
writing  ;  and  in  law  questions.  (See  The  Lawyer,  in  this 
GUIDE.) 

The  candidate  for  inspector  or  inspectress  is  examined 
specially  in   the  elements  of  the   English  lan- 
guage, and  in  the  geography   of  America  and 
Inspector.       *      s   '  _       ?.  Y    '  ,        .         ,  . 

Europe    (see    Readings    in   Geography,  in   this 

GUIDE). 
The  candidate  for  gauger,  examiner  or  sampler,   must 

show  his   fitness  for  the   position  by  answering 
Gauger.      practical     and    theoretical    questions,  and     by 

performing    practical    tests    in    gauging,    etc. 

See  Custom-houses,  VI.  729. 
Gauging,  XVI.  28. 
Commerce,  VI.  196,  203. 
Tariff  legislation,  sup.  2853. 
Imports  and  Exports,  XVII.  247. 

III.   THE   POST-OFFICE   SERVICE. 

See  the  follwing  articles : 

Post-office,  XIX.  578,  579. 

Postal  service  of  the  United  States,  sup.  2425. 

Post-office  Department,  sup.  2428. 

Free-delivery  system,  sup.  2426. 

Universal  Postal  Union,  sup.  2427. 

The  classified  postal  service  embraces  only  clerks  and 


THE   CANDIDATE   FOR   CIVIL   SERVICE.  3OI 

carriers.    To  test  the  fitness  of  a  candidate  for  this  service, 
examinations  are  provided,  which   include  the 
Letter        following  subjects  :  Orthography,  copying,  pen- 
Carriers,       manship,   arithmetic   (fundamental   rules,    frac- 
tions, and  percentage),  elements  of  the  geogra- 
phy of  the  United  States,  local  delivery,  reading  addresses, 
and  physical  tests. 

See  references  relating  to  above  subjects,  already  given 
for  examinations  for  the  departmental  service,  page  292. 

IV.    THE   GOVERNMENT   PRINTING   SERVICE. 

Candidates  for  any  of  the  trades  positions  in  this  ser- 
vice must  show  that  they  have  had  five  years'  experience 
at  the  particular  trade  for  which  they  desire  to  be  exam- 
ined.    The  examination  embraces  the  following  subjects : 
Orthography,  penmanship,  letter-writing,  arithmetic,  prac- 
tical questions.  (See  remarks  on  the  examination  of  clerk- 
copyist,  page  292  of  this  GUIDE.)     Under   the 
Printers.        head  of  practical  questions,  the  candidate  is  re- 
quired to  perform  four  exercises : 

(1)  Correcting  proof — in  the  same  manner  as  in  ordi- 
nary proof  in  a  printing-office  (see  sup.  2454;  XXIII.  701). 

(2)  a.  Writing  from  incorrect  copy,  correcting  errors  in 
syntax  and  orthography,  and  properly  punctuating  and 
capitalizing.  This  exercise  is  for  book  and  newspaper 
printers  only.  (See  The  Writer  in  this  GUIDE.) 

(2)  b.  Arrangement  of  a  title-page  and  a  business  card. 
The  candidate  is  furnished  with  the  matter,  and  he  is  re- 
quired to  arrange  it  properly,  indicating  the  size  of  type 
in  which  earh  line  should  be  printed.   (See  The  Printer,  in 
this  GUIDE.)    This  exercise  is  for  job  printers  only. 

(3)  Tabulating,  or  the  proper  arrangement  of  facts  and 
figures  in  a  table,  with  appropriate  general  heading  and 
box-heads. 


302  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

(4)  Abbreviations.  Writing  out  in  full  ten  words  for 
which  the  abbreviations  on  the  sheet  stand,  and  also  giv- 
ing the  corresponding  correct  abbreviations  for  ten  other 
words  printed  on  the  sheet.  See  I.  26 ;  sup.  16,  and 
sup.  23.) 

V.   THE   INTERNAL   REVENUE   SERVICE. 

The  classified  internal  revenue  service  includes  clerks, 
storekeepers,  and  gaugers  employed  in  the  collection  of 
internal  revenue.  To  test  fitness  for  admission  to  this 
service,  examinations  of  a  practical  character  are  provided 
on  such  subjects  as  the  Commission  may  from  time  to 
time  direct. 

(See  National  Revenue,  IX.  171.  Also  that  part  of  the 
chapter  entitled  The  Banker  and  Financier,  in  this  GUIDE, 
which  refers  to  public  finances.) 

B.    THE   SERVICE   OF  THE   STATE. 

Civil-service  rules,  similar  to  those  in  force  in  the  exec- 
utive department  of  the  federal  government,  have  been 
adopted  in  three  states — in  Massachusetts  and 
Illinois   by  legislative    enactment  and  in  New 

State  Laws.   __ 

York  by  constitutional  amendment.  As  a  gen- 
eral thing,  the  requirements,  the  questions,  and 
the  tests  do  not  differ  materially  from  those  prescribed 
for  candidates  for  similar  posts  of  duty  in  the  national 
service.  In  New  York,  nearly  all  the  state  offices  below 
that  of  deputy  and  the  officials  whose  relations  to  the 
head  of  the  department  are  of  a  fiduciary  character  are 
placed  on  the  competitive  list.  In  the  other  States,  the 
rules  apply  especially  to  the  selection  of  employees  in  the 
cities  which  are  included  under  the  provisions  of  the  civil- 
service  law,  and  in  a  more  limited  manner  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  sub-officials  and  assistants  in  the  executive  de- 


THE  CANDIDATE   FOR  CIVIL   SERVICE.  303 

partment  of  the  Government.  In  Wisconsin,  a  legislative 
enactment  provides  for  the  application  of  civil-service 
rules  in  cities  of  the  first  class ;  but  Milwaukee  being  the 
only  city  of  that  description,  the  law  is  inoperative  else- 
where. Movements  have  already  been  inaugurated  (De- 
cember, 1896),  for  the  introduction  of  civil-service  bills  in 
the  legislatures  of  other  States,  as  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, Minnesota,  and  Colorado.  It  is  therefore  probable 
that,  within  a  few  years,  civil-service  rules  will  be  in  force 
quite  generally  in  all  the  State  governments. 

C.    MUNICIPAL   SERVICE. 

Civil-service  rules  have  been  adopted  and  are  now  in 

effect  in  all  the  cities  of  New  York  and  Massa- 

Citieshav-    chusetts;  in    Chicago  and   Evanston,   Illinois; 

Service      *n  Milwaukee,  Seattle,  and  New  Orleans  ;  and 

to  a   limited    extent  in    Louisville,  Kentucky, 

and  Portland,  Maine.      Movements  are  on  foot  towards 

the  adoption   of  such  rules  in  many  other  cities,  as  St. 

Louis,  San  Francisco,  Denver,  Wheeling,  and  Galveston, 

Texas. 

In  New  York  City,  only  deputies,  private  secretaries, 
and  the  holders  of  a  few  important   positions 

are    excepted    from    the    application    of   these 
New  York.  A  . 

rules.     Indeed,  in  a  total  of  nearly  15,000  posi- 
tions, all  but  about  75  are  subject  to  the  regu- 
lations of  civil-service  laws. 

Of  the  other  cities  in  which  the  rules  are 
now  in  force,  Chicago  and  Boston  may  be  se- 
lected as  examples.  In  Chicago  the  classifica- 
tion includes  the  following  divisions  : 

A.  Medical  service.  (See  The  Physician,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

B.  Civil     engineering.      (See     The  Engineer,    in     this 
GUIDE.) 


304  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

C.  Clerical    service,    comprising     copyists,     recorders, 
bookkeepers,  stenographers,  pages,  messengers,  etc. 

D.  Police  service.     (See  The  Magistrate  and  Policeman, 
in  this  GUIDE.) 

E.  Electrical    service.      (See    The  Electrician,  in    this 
GUIDE.) 

F.  Fire  service. 

G.  Mechanical  engineers — persons  who  require  a  knowl- 
edge of  steam  engines,  boilers,  and  other  machinery.     (See 
The  Machinist,  and  Readings  in  Physics,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

H.  Bridge  service. 

I.  Inspection  service. 

J.  Janitor  and  Elevator  service. 

K.  Library  service.     (See  The  Bookman,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

L.  Labor  and  miscellaneous  service. 

In  Boston  the  civil-service  list  includes  nearly  the  same 
classes  of  workers.  Here,  besides  (i)  the  clerical  service, 
are  (2)  all  persons  doing  police  duty  in  prisons, 
reformatories  and  other  public  institutions  of 
the  State  and  city ;  (3)  members  of  the  fire  de- 
partment ;  (4)  members  of  the  police  depart- 
ment doing  permanent  duty;  (5)  engineers  and  draw- 
tenders  ;  (6)  foremen  and  sub-foremen  of  laborers  ;  (7)  in- 
spectors of  work  ;  (8)  engineers  and  janitors  employed  in 
school  buildings  ;  (9)  truant  officers,  and  several  others. 

The  questions  for  examination  in  the  various  cities  re- 
late to  about  the  same  branches  and  are  of  about  the 
same  grade  of  difficulty  as  those  used  in  examinations  for 
the  national  service.  A  very  few  examples  will  be  suf- 
ficient. 

Candidates  for  health  inspector  are  asked  questions  on 
contagious  diseases  (XVIII.  401);  on  fumigation  and  puri- 
fication, deodorants  and  disinfectants  (VII.  258;  XII. 
569,  etc.). 


THE   CANDIDATE   FOR   CIVIL   SERVICE.  305 

Candidates  for  the  similar  position  of  medical  inspector 

are  supposed  to  be  the  possessors  of  medical 

Examina-      diplomas,  and  to  have  had  some  experience  in 

tions.  hospital  practice.  They  may  be  asked  to  name 
all  the  infectious  diseases  that  may  become  epi- 
demic in  certain  localities ;  to  describe  bacteria  (XXI. 
398) ;  to  state  methods  for  the  suppression  of  tuberculosis 
(XVIII.  405,  855,  etc.);  to  give  the  diagnosis  and  treat- 
ment of  diphtheria,  etc. 

To  such  candidates,  the  references  named  in  The  Phy- 
sician, in  this  GUIDE,  will  be  of  no  little  interest. 

The  candidate  who  aspires  to  the  position  of  assistant 
engineer  is  examined,  among  other  things,  upon  his 
knowledge  of  the  various  systems  of  sewerage  (XXI.  711  ; 
IV.  467,  etc.);  of  coffer  dams  (XXIV.  406);  of  the  con- 
struction of  pavements  ;  of  masonry,  of  piling  (IV.  327),  of 
waterworks,  etc.  (See  the  chapters  in  this  GUIDE  en- 
titled The  Engineer  and  The  Builder. 

Applicants  for  positions  in  the  detective  force  of  district 
police,  besides  being  examined  in  writing  and  the  elemen- 
tary English  branches,  are  asked  questions  relative  to  crime, 
detection  of  criminals,  legal  papers,  and  methods  of  proced- 
ure in  criminal  cases.  (See  the  references  in  the  chapter, 
in  this  GUIDE,  entitled  The  Magistrate  and  Policeman?) 

Men  wishing  to  be  employed  as  drivers  in  the  fire  ser- 
vice or  other  service  of  the  city,  may  be  examined  as  to 
their  knowledge  concerning  the  proper  care  of  horses,  the 
diseases  of  horses,  the  shoeing  of  horses,  etc.  (See  refer- 
ences in  the  chapter  entitled  The  Stock  Raiser?) 

Candidates  for  positions  in  the  publicf  libraries  are. ex- 
amined upon  their  acquaintance  with  general  literature 
and  periodical  literature,  and  their  general  knowledge  of 
books.  (See  in  this  GUIDE,  Five  Courses  of  Readin 
Literature,  and  The  Bookman?) 


306  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

The  limits  assigned  to  this  chapter  forbid  any  further 
details  concerning  the  requirements  and  examinations  for 
the  numerous  positions  procured  only  through  competi- 
tive examination  in  the  cities  we  have  mentioned.  Enough 
has  been  said  to  point  out  the  way  whereby  the  candidate 
for  a  position  in  any  department  of  the  civil  service  may 
so  utilize  the  vast  store  of  information  in  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  as  to  make  it  a  convenient  and  useful  aid  in  his 
efforts  to  prepare  himself  for  the  ordeal  of  examination, 
no  matter  in  what  branch  or  under  what  division  of  the 
service. 


THE  POLITICAL  ECONOMIST.  307 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

THE   POLITICAL   ECONOMIST. 

"  This  is  that  noble  Science  of  Politics,  which  is  equally  removed  from 
the  barren  theories  of  utilitarian  sophists,  and  from  the  petty  craft,  so 
often  mistaken  for  statesmanship  by  minds  grown  narrow  in  habits  of 
intrigue,  jobbing,  and  official  etiquette — which,  of  all  sciences  is  the  most 
important  to  the  welfare  of  nations — which,  of  all  sciences,  most  tends 
to  expand  and  invigorate  the  mind — which  draws  nutriment  and  orna- 
ment from  every  part  of  philosophy  and  literature,  and  dispenses  in  re- 
turn nutriment  and  ornament  to  all."—  Macaulav. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  in    its  historical  aspects,  is  the 
subject  of  an  important  article  by  J.  K.  Ingram, 
Political       *n  the  nineteenth  volume  of  the  Encyclopedia 
Economy.      Britannica.    The  earliest  expressions  of  thought 
on  economic  subjects  have  come  down  to   us 
from  the  Oriental  theocracies,  and  of  these   Mr.   Ingram 
gives  an  interesting  account  in  XIX.   348.     This  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  survey  of  Greek  and   Roman    notions  of  eco- 
nomics, with  quite  a  full  exposition  of  Plato's  ideal  system. 

The  economy  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  described  at  length 
(pages  353-355),  with  some  notice  of  the  origin  of  trade 
corporations,  and  their  influence  upon  the  industrial  forces 
of  those  early  times.  The  three  successive  phases  of  mod- 
ern economics  are  then  treated  with  great  fulness  (pages 
352-401).  'This  latter  and  larger  part" of  Mr.  Ingram's 
article  may  be  read  by  sections,  with  collateral  references 
to  other  articles,  as  follows : 

First  Modern  Phase — Transitional,  XIX.  354. 

Second  Modern  Phase — Mercantile,  XIX.  354-358  ;  Co- 


308  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

pernicus,  VI.  346;  Sir  William  Temple,  XXIII.  171  ;  John 
Locke,  XIV.  751. 

Third  Modern  Phase— Natural  Liberty,  XIX.  358-401. 

1.  WEALTH  AND  CURRENCY.    Adam  Smith,  XXII.  169 ; 
his  "  Wealth  of  Nations/'  364-370. 

Wealth  in  economics,  XXIV.  461. 

Capital,  V.  71. 

Money,  XVI.  720;  depreciation  of  currency,  IX.  178. 

Bullion,  IV.  518,  519. 

Exchange,  VIII.  784-796. 

Silver,  XXII.  69-74. 

Coinage  Laws,  sup.  857. 

Crime  of  1873,  sup.  904. 

Finances  of  the  United  States,  sup.  1257. 

Jeremy  Bentham,  III.  575. 

Locke  on  money,  XIV.  754 ;  Ricardo  on  money,  XX. 
534.  (See  references  to  money  in  the  chapter  entitled, 
The  Banker  and  Financier?) 

2.  BANKS  AND  BANKING.     (See  especially  the  chapter 
in  this  GUIDE  entitled,  The  Banker  and  Financier?)     Sav- 
ings-banks, XXI.  327. 

3.  POPULATION.     Population  considered  in  its  statical 
and  dynamical  aspects,  XIX.  513. 

The  Malthusian  theory,  371  ;  Thomas  Malthus,  XV.  343. 
Immigration  into  the  United  States,  sup.  1657. 

4.  TAXATION.      See   the   special  article    on    taxation, 
XXIII.  85. 

Ricardo,  XX.  533. 

Taxation  and  protection,  IX.  755. 


THE   POLITICAL   ECONOMIST.  309 

Henry  George,  sup.  1381. 
Income  tax,  sup.  1662. 
Inheritance  tax,  sup.  1681. 
Single  tax,  sup.  2725. 
(See  other  references,  page  319.) 

5.  PAUPERISM.     See  POOR-LAWS,  XIX.  462. 
Robert  Owen,  XVIII.  86. 

English  Poor-law  Parish,  XVIII.  296. 

Poor-law  Relief,  XIX.  468,  473. 

English  Charities,  V.  401. 

See  The  Philanthropist  and  Reformer,  in  this  GUIDE.) 

6.  LABOR  AND  WAGES.     Special  article  on  Labor,  XIV. 
165  ;  special  article  on  Wages,  XXIV.  307. 

Lassalle,  XIV.  321. 

Industrial  Condition  of  Women,  sup.  1672. 

Apprenticeship,  I.  213. 

Guilds,  XI.  259. 

(See  the  chapter  in  this  GUIDE  entitled,  The  Laborer?) 

7.  COOPERATION.       Communism,    VI.  211,    Socialism, 
XXII.  205  ;  Cooperation,  V.  338. 

Oneida  Community,  XVII.  773. 
Amish  or  Ammonite  Community,  sup.  169. 
Brook  Farm  Association  for  education  and  agriculture, 
XX.  567. 

The  Community  at  Economy,  sup.  1113. 

Shakers,  XXI.  736. 

Fourier/  IX.  489. 

Saint-Simon,  XXI.  197. 

Robert  Owen,  XVIII.  86. 

Plato's  Republic,  VI.  212. 

Sociological  conceptions  of  Comte",  VI.  235. 


310  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Modern  Clubs,  VI.  41. 
Anti-Poverty  Society,  sup.  1381. 

8.  TARIFF.     See  the  special   article,   Free   Trade   and 
Protection,  IX.  752. 

Custom  duties,  VI.  729. 
Protection,  sup.  2461. 
Tariff,  sup.  2853. 
Warehousing,  sup.  3084. 

9.  POLITICAL  ECONOMISTS.     A  few  famous  economists 
not  named  above : 

John  Stuart  Mill,  XVI.  307. 
J.  E.  Cairnes,  IV.  643. 
Walter  Bagehot,  XIX.  396. 
Arnold  Toynbee,  XIX.  397. 
Benjamin  Franklin,  IX.  711. 
Harriet  Martineau,  XV.  583. 
Nassau  Senior,  XXI.  663. 
Edward  Atkinson,  sup.  280. 
Henry  C.  Carey,  sup.  698. 

For  further  references,  see   the  chapter  entitled,    The 
A  merican  Citizen. 


THE  BANKER  AND   FINANCIER.  31 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

THE   BANKER   AND   FINANCIER. 

"  Seest  thou  a  man  diligent  in  business?  He  shall  stand  before 
kings." — Proverbs  of  Solomon. 

IN  this  chapter  it  is  proposed  to  point  out  a  few  of  the 
articles  in  the  Britannica  which  relate  to  the  kindred 
topics,  money  and  banking,  with  a  brief  notice  of  national 
finance. 

I.    MONEY. 

In  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world  all  business  was  carried 
on,  and  all  man's  needs  were  satisfied,  by  trading  or  barter. 
The  man  who  had  wheat  and  wanted  beef  had 
The  First  to  find  some  one  who  had  a  cow  and  was  will- 
Money,  ing  to  exchange  her  for  his  grain.  See  VI.  196. 
But  this  method  was  so  inconvenient  that  men 
finally  began  to  try  to  find  something  that  would  serve  as 
a  medium  of  exchange.  Different  races,  peoples,  and 
tribes  tried  different  mediums. 

The  Greeks  used  cattle,  VI.  197 ; 

The  Chinese  used  tea,  XVI.  723  ; 

Salt  was  used  in  some  countries,  XVI,  723  ; 

Tobacco  was  used  by  the  colonists  of  Virginia,  XXIII. 
729 ;  the  Indians  used  wampum,  sup.  3078. 

Cowry  shells  were  used  in  some  maritime  countries,  VI. 
535,  7°~6; 


312  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

And  in  other  countries  various  other  articles  were  used, 
XVI.  723. 

But  whatever  the  article  may  have  been,  it  was  money, 
and  was  so  called.  Why?  What  is  money?  See  XVI. 
720.  What  are  the  causes  which  determine  the  value  of 
money?  See  XVI.  721. 

Why  were  these  ancient  forms  of  money  unsatisfactory  ? 
Why  were  metals  preferable,  and  when  were  they  first 
used  for  money?  See  XVI.  723. 

Why  was  iron  unsatisfactory  ? 

Why  were  silver  and  gold  finally  selected  ?  What  are 
the  special  advantages  of  these  two  metals  ?  See  XVI. 

723,  724- 

What  is  coinage  ?     See  XVI.  724  ;  sup.  856. 

The  science   of  coins  is  called  Numismatics.     See  the 

long  and  very  interesting  article  on  this  subject,  XVII. 

628-661.      Here    under   distinct   headings    are 

chapters  on  the  history  of  Greek  coins  (page 

631) ;  of  Roman  coins  (page  652)  ;  of  mediaeval 

and  modern  coins  (page  654)  ;   and  of  Oriental 

coins  (page  659).  See  Coins  of  the  United  States,  sup.  857. 

The  substance  to  be  used  in  coinage  being  determined 

upon,  the  next  thing  was  to  select  a  standard 

unit  of  value.  Every  country  naturally  fixed 
Standards. 

upon  a  standard  of  its   own.     In  England  this 

standard  is  the  pound ;  in  France  it  is  the 
franc.  See  XVI.  730.  In  the  United  States  it  is  the 
dollar.  See  sup.  856. 

What  are  the  standards  of  other  countries  ?  And  what 
are  the  principal  gold  and  silver  ^oins  used  m  all  the 
countries  of  the  world  ?  See  XVI.  732,  733. 

How  are  coins  made?  A  complete  description  of  the 
processes  employed  in  the  making  of  gold  and  silver  coins 
may  be  found  in  the  article  entitled  Mints,  XVI.  480-490. 


THE   BANKER   AND   FINANCIER.  313 

In  this  article  there  is  also  a  concise  and  very  interesting 
history  of  the  methods  of  coinage  among  all  nations  from 
the  earliest  stages  of  civilizations  to  the  pres- 
ent time.     See  United  States  Mint,  sup.  2075. 

Mints. 

Since  the  coins  of  a  country  consist   of  two 
metals,  gold  and  silver,  how  shall  the  ratio  of 
one  to  the  other  be  fixed? 

In  other  words,  of  how  much  more  value  is  a  certain 
quantity  of  gold,  by  weight,  than  an  equal  quantity  of 
silver?  This  brings  us  to  a  consideration  of  the  relative 
values  of  the  two  metals.  Read  what  is  said  about  the 
conflict  of  standards,  XVI.  735-738,  which  you  will  find 
to  be  a  masterly  presentation  of  the  whole  subject. 

In  the  United  States,  the  first  Congress  fixed  the  ratio 

at  15  to  I  ;  that  is,  it  was  decided  that  fifteen  pounds  of 

silver  should  be  considered  worth  as  much  as  one  pound 

of   gold.     A   complete  history   of  the  coinage 

Sixteen  to      laws  of  this  country  since  that  time,  written  by 

One.          Senator  John  Sherman,  may  be  found  in  sup. 
856.     Used  as  money,  gold  has   some    advan- 
tages which  silver  has  not,  and  silver  has  some  advantages 
which  gold  has  not.     This  matter  is  carefully  discussed  in 
XVI.  723. 

The  reader  of  Senator  Sherman's  article  will  find  that 
the  ratio  of  the  two  metals  did  not  long  remain  at  15  to  i. 
Silver  becoming  more  and  more  plentiful  all  the  time,  it 
followed  the  inevitable  law  of  demand  and  supply,  and  be- 
came cheaper  and  cheaper  until  finally  it  took  16  ounces 
of  silver  to  buy  one  ounce  of  gold. 

Did  the  ratio  stay  at  16  to  i  ?  It  /would  have  done 
so  if  silver  had  not  continued  to  become  more  and  more 
plentiful.  This  whole  question  is  ably  discussed  in  XVI. 
736-737,  and  in  Senator  Sherman's  article.  See  also  the 
"  Crime  of  1873,"  sup.  942. 


GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

As  to  the  relative  increase  in  the  world's  annual  prod- 
uct of  gold  and  silver,  see  XVI.  731,  735;  XXII.  73. 
Read  also  the  article  on  Bullion,  IV.  518,  and  the  chapter 
on  the  economic  production  of  the  precious  metals,  XVI. 
728-730.  See  also  the  account  of  the  Monetary  Confer- 
ence of  1892,  sup.  2994. 

II.    BANKING. 

In  its  simplest  form,  a  bank  is  an  institution  where 
money  may  be  deposited  for  safe-keeping.  See  the  his- 
tory of  the  origin  of  banking,  II.  316,  317. 

But  banks  usually  lend  money  as  well  as  receive  it  ;  and 
their  profits  accrue  from  the  excess  of  the  inter- 

est received  over  that  which  is  paid  out.     See 
Banks.          .       f   „ 

the  following  articles  : 

Interest,  XIII.  188. 

Interest  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1685. 

How  interest  is  calculated,  II.  536. 

Usury,  XXIV.  17. 

American  law  on  usury,  sup.  1686. 

When  money  is  deposited  in  a  bank  on  a  current  or 
drawing  account,  the  customer  may  draw  it  out,  as  he  re- 
quires, by  means  of  orders  called  cheques.  See  Cheques, 

v.  583- 

Bankers  also  undertake  the  business  of  collecting  money 
for  cheques,  for  bills,  and  for  other  securities,  which  they 
may  have  received  from  their  customers.  The  labor  of 
collection  is  much  facilitated  by  means  of  bills  of  exchange. 
See  the  following  articles  : 

Exchange,  VIII.  784. 

I-  673. 


Ex  h  n 

Rates  of  exchange,  XXIV.  52. 

Interest  on  bills  of  exchange,  VIII.  791. 
In    England,   bills   of    exchange   are   made   payable   in 


THE  BANKER  AND   FINANCIER.  315 

London.  In  the  United  States  every  country  banker  has 
a  correspondent  in  one  of  the  banks  of  New  York.  The 
common  centre  of  exchange,  established  by  the  bankers 
of  these  cities  to  further  facilitate  this  branch  of  their  busi- 
ness, is  called  a  clearing-house.  See  the  following : 

Clearing-house,  III.  328. 

Clearing-       London  Bank  Clearing-house,  I.  91. 
house.         Clearing-house  in  New  York,  etc.,  sup.  826. 

Clearing-house  certificates,  sup.  827. 

Modern  banking  originated  with  the  money-dealers  of 

Florence,  Italy,  as  early  as  the  nth  century.  See  IX.  334. 

It  was  introduced  into  England  by  the  goldsmiths  of 

London,  in  the  ijth  century.     See  Bank  of  England,  III. 

316-319- 

A  history  of  banking  in  the  United  States  is  given  in  a 

very  ably  written  article  in  sup.  337.  Another  article  oh 
the  same  subject,  giving  an  account  of  the  rise  of  state 
banks  and  their  transformation  into  national-  banks,  is 
found  in  III.  339-341.  Still  other  interesting  historical 
information  upon  this  subject  is  given  in  XXIII.  766,  776. 
See  also  : 

Paper  currency  in  the  United  States,  XXIII. 

United 

States  //:> 

Currency.          Greenbacks,  XXIII.  775. 
Bank-notes,  sup.  341. 

Legal  tender,  sup.  1858. 

Banking  system  of  the  United  States,  III.  203. 

Greenback  Party,  sup.  1461. 

With  the  development  of  commerce  and  the  increase  of 
exchange,  the  business  of  banking  has  been  variously  sub- 
divided. The  different  classes  of  bankers  are  distinguished 
from  one  another  by  differences  in  the  rules  which  they 
observe  in  the  management  of  their  business.  .  Hence 
arise  the  different  classes  of  banks. 


316  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

(i)  Banks   of   deposit,  III.  328.     The   article   on  bank 
vaults,  sup   344,  is  an  interesting  description  of 
Classes  of     the  latest  improved  burglar-proof  vaults. 
Banks.  (2)  Land-mortgage  banks,  III.  328.  See,  also, 

XVI.   848;   XXIII.  596.     Mortgage   on    land, 
XIV.  265,  270. 

(3)  Credit  companies,  or  credit  banks :  In  Germany, 
VI.  214,  339.  Credit  Foncier  and  Credit  Mobilier,  VI. 

557- 

(5)  Discount  banks,  III.  328.  See  also  Brokers,  V. 
360;  Brokers  in  America,  sup.  581  ;  accommodation  pa- 
per, sup.  36. 

(5)  Banks    of    issue — national    banks    (sup.    338),   state 
banks,   etc.     See    bank-notes,   sup.    341  ;    United    States 
Bank,  sup.  3001  ;  Banking  system  of   the   United  States, 
III.  203;  Bank-note  manufacture,  sup.  341. 

(6)  Savings-banks,  XXI.  327. 
Post-office  savings-banks,  XIX.  572. 
Savings-banks  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2636. 
Law  of  savings-banks,  sup.  2637. 

In  order  that  the  genuineness  of  the  coins  of  a  govern- 
ment or  of  its  paper  currency  may  be  preserved,  stringent 
laws  have  been  passed  in  most  countries  for  the  preven- 
tion of  counterfeiting  and  the  punishment  of  counter- 
feiters. See  sup.  928. 

The  influence  of  the  Stock  Exchange  upon 

Stock        the    financial    stability   of  the  country  will  be 
Exchange,     better  understood  after  reading  the  article   on 
Stock  Exchange  in  XXII.   556.     See'also  Ac- 
count, I.  91  ;  bulls  and  bears,  I.  92. 

For  accounts  of  the  great  financial  crises  that  have 
occurred  at  various  times,  see  Banking,  III.  319;  sup. 
339»  34°  5  and  Panics,  sup.  2288. 


THE   BANKER  AND   FINANCIER,  317 

Some  of  the  most  famous  bankers  of  the  world  deserve 
to  be  noticed  here.  A  study  of  the  methods 
Famous  by  which  they  acquired  preeminence  and 
Bankers.  boundless  fortunes  may  help  to  a  clearer  un- 
derstanding of  the  business  principles  that  are 
at  the  basis  of  success  in  every  enterprise. 

The  greatest  banking  and  mercantile  houses  in  Europe 
in  the  I4th  century  were  the  Bardi  and  Peruzzi  of  Flor- 
ence. See  III.  316. 

William  Paterson  was  the  chief  projector  of  the  Bank 
of  England,  XVIII.  359. 

The  Rothschilds  have  long  been  known  as  the  greatest 
family  of  bankers  in  the  world,  XXI.  3  ;  sup.  2580. 

An  American  banker,  v/hose  name  should  always  be 
mentioned  with  reverence,  because  of  his  great  services  to 
our  country,  was  Robert  Morris  of  Pennsylvania,  XVI.  846. 

Other  famous  bankers  and  financiers  might  be  named, 
such  as : 

Baroness  Burdett-Coutts,  sup.  624. 

Lyman  J.  Gage,  sup.  1356. 

Hetty  R.  Green,  sup.  1459. 

Baron  Hirsch,  the  Jewish  philanthropist,  sup.  1588. 

In  connection  with  these  studies,  see  also : 

Pawnbroking,  sup.  2327. 

Pledge,  XIX.  220. 

Broker,  V.  360. 

Safe-deposit  Companies,  sup.  2599. 

Payments,  XVIII.  441. 

Legal  Tender,  sup.  1858. 

III.    PUBLIC    FINANCE. 

In  Great  Britain,  the  Bank  of  England  transacts  the 
whole  business  of  government.  "  She  acts  not  only,"  says 


318  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Adam  Smith,  "  as  an  ordinary  bank,  but  as  a  great  engine 

of  state.     She  receives  and  pays  the  greater  part  of  the 

annuities  (see  II.  72)  which  are  due  to  the  cred- 

Bank  of        itors  of  the  public ;   she   circulates   exchequer 

England.       bills  (see  IX.  182;  XL  386);  and  she  advances 

to  the  Government  the  annual  amount  of  the 

land  and  jnalt  taxes  which  are    frequently  not   paid  till 

some  years  after."    This  bank,  therefore,  occupies  a  place 

of  very  great  importance  in  the  finance  of  Great  Britain. 

But  before  going  further,  let  us  define  finance.  By 
the  finances  of  a  country  we  generally  understand  the 
ways  and  means  by  which  the  expenditures  of  govern- 
ment, local  and  national,  are  met.  Under  this 
History  of  head,  therefore,  all  methods  of  taxation  are  to 
Finance.  be  considered. 

The  most  ancient  forms  of  finance  were  taxes 
on  produce,  IX.  171.     See 

Taxation  in  Athens,  IX.  172  ;  in  Rome,  IX.  173. 

English  exchequer,  VIII.  297;  history  of,  IX.  174. 

Finance  a  science  in  England,  IX.  180. 

Land  taxes  in  England,  IX.  181,  182. 

Taxation  of  the  American  Colonies,  IX.  185,  186. 

The  English  Stamp  Act,  VIII.  357  ;  XXIII.  737. 

Income  tax  in  Great  Britain,  IX.  187-189. 

Tariff  legislation,  sup.  2853. 

The  corn  laws,  IX.  189,  VI.  408;  their  repeal,  VI.  84, 
XVIII.  457. 

Notorious  financial  schemes  :•  South  Sea  scheme,  IX. 
183  ;  John  Law's  Mississippi  scheme,  XIV.  367,  IX.  584, 
XV.  22  ;  schemes  of  Baron  von  Goertz,  sup.  1415. 

History  of  taxation  in  England,  IX.  174-191. 

After  having  read  the  foregoing  articles,  we  are  pre- 
pared for  the  article  on  TAXATION,  XXIII.  85,  where  we 


THE   BANKER  AND   FINANCIER.  319 

shall  find  an  analysis  of  the  economical  theory  in  accord- 
ance with  which  taxation  is  shown  to  be  just  and  equita- 
ble, or  unjust  and  oppressive.  Here,  also,  are  considered 
the  various  species  of  taxes : 

Direct  taxes,  and  indirect,  XXIII.  87. 
Taxes  on  rent,  XXIII.  87. 
Taxes  on  profits,  XXIII.  87. 
Taxes  on  capital,  XXIII.  88;  see,  also,  Pitt's 
income  tax,   IX.  187;  income  tax  in  the   United   States, 
sup.  1662. 

Taxes  on  wages,  XXIII.  89;  see  Wages,  XXIV.  306. 
Tax  sales,  sup.  2858. 

Taxes  on  commodities,  XXIII.  89.  This  leads  us  to  a 
consideration  of  export  and  import  duties.  Read,  there- 
fore, the  article  on  FREE  TRADE,  IX.  752-762 — a  masterly 
presentation  of  the  whole  question  as  viewed  from  a  Brit- 
ish standpoint.  Then  follow  with 
Taxation  and  protection,  IX.  755. 

Protection  in  the  United  States,  XXIII.  754,  761,  776, 
sup.  2461. 

Warehousing,  sup.  3084. 
History  of  tariff  laws,  sup.  2853. 
Finances  of  the  United  States,  sup.  1267. 
Treasury  Department  of  the  United  States,  sup.  2937. 
The  monetary  problem,  sup.  2997. 

The  other  side  of  this  subject  of  public  finance  relates  to 
expenditures  and  the  national  debt.     A  number  of  valu- 
able articles  are  presented  for  consideration  : 
National  National  debt,  XVII.  243. 

Debt.  Debt  of  the  United  States,  XXI 1 1.  747  ;  sup. 

1005. 

Receipts  and   expenditures  of  the  United  States,  sup. 
2986. 

Debts  of  various  nations,  sup.  1007. 


32O  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XLVI. 

THE  MERCHANT  AND  TRADER. 

"  I  will  buy  with  you,  sell  with  you." — Merchant  of  Venice. 
"Many  times  the  reading  of  a  book  has  made  the  fortune  of  a  man — 
has  decided  his  way  of  life." — R.   W.  Emerson. 

COMMERCE,   in  its  broadest  signification,  is   traffic    in 
goods.     This  traffic  may  be  on   a  large  scale  or  a  small 
scale  ;  it    may  be    conducted    entirely  within    one's    own 
country  or  it  may  extend  to  foreign  lands.     To  the  mer- 
chant  who  is  engaged  in  such  traffic,  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  affords  information  which  it  would  be  difficult 
for  him  to   obtain  from  any  other  source.     In  the  first 
place,  there  is  no  commodity  in  which  he  deals 
Dry         that  it  does  not  fully  describe.     If  his  specialty 
Goods.       is  dry  goods,  he  has  but  to  turn  to  the  Britan- 
nica to  learn  all  about    silk,  XXII.   56  ;  satin, 
XXIV.  464 ;  calico,  VI.  488  ;  gingham,  X.  604  ;  woolens, 
XXIV.  653  ;  thread,  VI.  502  ;  and  the  hundreds  of  other 
articles  on   his  shelves.     If   he  is  a  grocer,  he 
may  learn  with  equal  facility  all   about  coffee. 
VI.  no;  tea,  XXIII.  97;  spices,  XIX.  97;  su- 
gar, XX.  622  ;  and  the  numberless  commodities 
of  his  trade.     And  so,  no  matter  what  department  of  mer- 
chandise may  be  his,  he  will  find  that  the  pages  of  the 
Britannica  are  teeming  with  information   for  him.     It  is 
unnecessary  for  the  GUIDE  to  specify  further  in  this  direc- 
tion.    Any  desired  article  having  reference  to  the  various 
kinds  of  merchandise  may  be  readily  found  by  consulting 
the  Index  volume.     It  is  rather  with  the  general  features 


THE  MERCHANT  AND  TRADER.         321 

of  trading  or   of  commerce  that  we  propose  to  deal  in 
this  chapter. 

Every  merchant  (and  thousands  of  people  who  are  not 
merchants)  will  be  attracted  by  the  very  inter- 
History  of     esting  article  on  COMMERCE  in  the  sixth  vol- 
Commerce.    ume  of  the  Britannica.     This  article  is  largely 
historical  in    character,   and  embraces,  among 
other  topics,  the  following  : 

Antiquity  of  commerce,  p.  196. 

Free  trade  in  Great  Britain,  p.  205. 

Tariffs,  p.  203. 

Increase  of  International  trade,  p.  203. 

Now,  as  to  the  antiquity  and  history  of  commerce,  we 
may  learn  still  more  by  referring  to  the  chapter  on  com- 
merce and  industry,  VIII.  617,  and  to  sections  relating  to 
trade  under  the  heads  of  Arabia,  Phoenicia,  etc. 

For  additional  information   concerning  free 

Free         trade  and  tariffs,  together  with  a  full  discussion 

Trade.       of  the  questions  relating  to  them,  see  the  fol- 
lowing articles  : 

FREE  TRADE,  IX.  752. 

Customs  duties,  VI.  729. 

United  States  tariff  legislation,  sup.  2461,  2853. 

Economic  System  of  Free  Trade,  IX.  721  ;  Colonial 
System,  sup.  868. 

For  the  history  and  present  status  of  international 
trade,  see  the  section  relating  to  trade  under  the  head  of 
each  country.  For  example  ; 

Trade  of  Algeria,  I.  565. 

Trade  of  Arabia,  II.  245. 

Trade  of  Argentina,  II.  495. 

Trade  of  Austria,  III.  12 1,  etc. 

See,  also,  Imports  and  Exports,  XVII.  247. 

21 


322  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Foreign  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  sup.  2998. 
Reciprocity  and  retaliation,  sup.  2998. 
In  any  system  of  commerce  the  question  of  transporta- 
tion is  an  important  factor.     This  is  clearly  illustrated  in 
the  chapter  relating  to  defective  conditions  of 
Transporta-  commerce  in  the  ancient  world,  VI.  198. 

tion.  Transportation  by  means  of  camels  in  cara- 

vans (V.  83)  is  the  most  ancient  method  known 
to  us.  Transportation  by  boats,  along  rivers  and  the 
shores  of  inland  gulfs  and  seas,  dates  also  from  a  very 
early  period  (XXI.  804).  See  such  articles  as 

Ancient  and  mediaeval  ships,  XXI.  804. 
Modern  ships,  XXL  809. 
Shipping  of  the  United  States,  XXIII.  826. 
Whaleback  steamers,  sup.  3132. 

Notice  the  references  in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Sea- 
man, in  this  GUIDE. 

Water  transportation  in  modern  times  has  been  vastly 
facilitated  by  artificial  water-ways  called  canals.    The  Bri- 
tannica  contains  a  variety  of  chapters  relative  to 
these  highways  of  trade. 

Canals,  a  historical   and   descriptive  article, 
IV.  782. 

Ship  canals,  IV.  787. 

History  of  canals   and    canal-construction — a  valuable 
article,  fully  up  to  date,  sup.  677-683. 

The  Panama  Canal,  XVIII.  209;  sup.  2286. 

The  Nicaragua  Canal,  XVII.  1136;  sup.  2208. 

The  Suez  Canal,  XXII.  620. 

The  St.  Lawrence  Canal,  XXL  179. 

The  Erie  Canal,  sup.  1213. 

Statistics  of  canals  in  the  United  States,  sup.  683. 

Shipping,  United  States  laws,  sup.  2706. 

Shipping  on  the  Great  Lakes,  sup.  2707. 


THE  MERCHANT  AND  TRADER.         323 

Commerce  on  Deep  Waterways,  sup.  3103. 
But  by  far  the  most  important  method  of  transporta- 
tion is  that  by  railroads  ;  and  here  we  must  refer  the  reader 
to  the  chapter  in  this  GUIDE  entitled,  The  Railroad  Man. 
In  connection  with  this  same  topic  of  trans- 
portation,   there    are   certain    related    subjects 
Railroads.  .  -•!"•.  ^i  j 

which  are  of  practical  interest  to  the  trader  or 
merchant.  We  mention  only  a  few  : 

Carrier,  V.  138. 

Common  carrier  (in  the  United  States)  and  his  liabilities, 
sup.  709 

Charter-party,  shipping  contract,  V.  433. 

Freight  and  freight-carriers,  sup.  1338. 

Grain  elevators,  sup.  1436. 

Bill  of  lading,  III.  674;  sup.  470. 

TOPICS   OF  TRADE. 

Other  subjects  of  a  more  or  less  practical  character  are 
constantly  claiming  the  attention  of  every  man  of  business. 
The  Encyclopedia  Britannica  discusses  all  of  these  sub- 
jects in  a  lucid  and  comprehensive  manner,  thus  answering 
many  difficult  questions,  and  giving  much  information  that 
cannot  be  found  elsewhere.  Here  are  some  of  the  topics: 

Account,  I.  91  ;  sup.  36. 

Adjustment,  I.  154. 

Agent,  I.  280. 

Arbitrage,  II.  311. 

Average,  III.  145. 

Bill  of  credit,  sup.  470. 

Bill  of  exchange,  sup.  470. 

Bill  of  sale,  III.  674. 

Company,  VI.  221. 

Contraband,  VI.  320. 

Exchange,  VIII.  783. 


324  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Excise,  VIII.  797. 

Insurance,  XIII.  161.     (See  the  chapter  in  this  GUIDE 
entitled,  The  Insurance  Agent.) 
Partnership,  sup.  2303. 
Trade-marks,  XXIII.  498;  sup.  2321. 
Corn  trade,  VI.  413. 
Cotton  trade,  VI.  487. 
Silk  trade,  XXII.  64. 
Chambers  of  Commerce,  sup.  743. 
Commercial  Law,  sup.  876. 
Commercial  Museum  of  Philadelphia,  sup.  876. 
Trusts,  sup.  2952;  XXIII.  600. 
Business  Colleges,  sup.  635. 
Mercantile  Agency,  sup.  2037. 
Mercantile  Law,  sup.  2038. 
Laws  affecting  merchant  seamen,  XXI.  650. 
Trade-unions,  XXIII.  499. 

History    of  money,    VI.    196;  cowry   shells 

Money.      used  for  money,  VI.  535.     (See  the  chapter  in 

this  GUIDE  entitled,  The  Banker  and  Financier.) 

FAMOUS   MERCHANTS. 

The  following  subjects   are  also  of  more  than  passing 
interest  to  persons  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits : 
Merchants  of  the  Steelyard,  London,  XXII.  528. 
The  Company  of  Merchant  adventurers,  XXI.  826. 
South  Sea  Company,  VI.  221. 
John  Law  and  the  Mississippi  scheme,  IX.  584;  XIV. 

367. 

Hudson's  Bay  Company,  XII.  333. 
East  India  Company,  II.  701  ;  sup.  1107;  X.  185, 186. 
Dutch  East  India  Company,  X.  186. 
For   reading  in    leisure   hours,  there  are  few  subjects 
more  interesting  than  the  lives  of  famous  men  who  have 


THE  MERCHANT  AND  TRADER.         325 

achieved  success  in  their  respective  callings.     There  have 
been   many  great   merchants  whose  biographies  are  well 
worth  perusal.     Read  the  accounts  given  in  the 
Leisure         Britannica,  of 
Reading.  Sir  Richard  Whittington,  "  thrice  lord  mayor 

of  London,"  XXIV.  555. 

Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  founder  of  the  Royal  Exchange, 
XL  1 86. 

John  Jacob  Astor,  the  great  fur  merchant  of  America, 

n  737- ' 

Stephen  Girard,  the  merchant  philanthropist  of  Phila- 
delphia, X.  621. 

Robert  Morris,  the  American  patriot,  XVI.  846. 

George  Peabody,  merchant  and  philanthropist,  XVIII. 
442. 


326  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 

THE   INSURANCE   AGENT. 

"  He  commands  us  to  provide  and  give  great  gifts." — Timon  of 
Athens. 

INSURANCE  is  the  term  applied  to  any  organized  method 

of  providing  against  pecuniary  losses  from  fire,  shipwreck, 

accidents  to   the  person,  or  premature  death. 

Insurance  is  usually  conducted  by  a  company 

Definition.  1-1 

or  corporation  having  ample  means,  which  guar- 
antees the  insured,  under  certain  conditions  and 
to  a  specified  extent,  against  loss  from  one  or  the  other 
of  these  contingencies.  The  business  of  insurance  is  very 
extensive,  employing  a  vast  amount  of  capital  and  engag- 
ing the  services  of  great  numbers  of  men  in  every  civilized 
country  in  the  world.  It  is  evident  that  to  be  a  success- 
ful manager,  or  agent  in  any  capacity,  for  an  insurance 
company,  a  person  must  not  only  possess  a  fair  business 
education,  but  he  must  know  a  good  deal  about  the  his- 
tory, the  objects,  and  the  internal  methods  and  economy 
of  the  special  business  in  which  he  proposes  to  engage. 
No  other  single  publication  in  the  world  contains  more 
well-digested  information  on  these  subjects  than  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica. 

A  general  history  of  insurance  in  its  different  branches 
is  contained  in  the  article  INSURANCE,  XIII.  161-187. 

Other  topics  with  which  every  manager  or  agent  will 
wish  to  make  himself  acquainted,  are  as  follows : 

Company,  VI.  221  ;  XVIII.  330. 


THE  INSURANCE  AGENT.  327 

Corporation,  VI.  432. 

Corporations  in  the  United  States,  XXIII.  785. 

Contracts,  VI.  322  ;  XXI.  305. 
General        Partnership  contracts,  XVIII.  330. 
Topics. 

Interest,  XIII.  188;  calculation  of,  II.  536. 
Premium,  XIII.  162. 
Commission,  II.  536. 
Warranty,  XXIV.  373. 
Assignment,  II.  729. 

FIRE  INSURANCE,  XIII.  161-168. 

Fire  Insurance  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1276. 

Fire  Insurance  in  Great  Britain,  XIII.  164. 
Fire 

Insurance  companies  in  Canada,  XIII.  168. 

National  Board  of  Underwriters  in  the  United 
States,  XIII.  1 68. 

MARINE  INSURANCE,  XIII.  184-187. 

History  of  marine  insurance,  III.  145. 

Marine  Insurance  in  the  United  States,  sup.  logs. 
Marine.         . 

Average  in  maritime  commerce,  III.  145. 

Average  in  marine  insurance,  XIII.  187. 
Lloyd's  marine  insurance,  XIV.  741. 

LIFE  INSURANCE,  XIII.  168-184. 

Life  Insurance  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1879. 
Life.          Annuities,  II.  72. 

*  Endowments,  XIII.  168. 

Expectation,  or  mathematical  probability,  XIX.  775. 
Longevity,  XIV.  857. 
Tables  of  mortality,  XIII.  169. 
Average  death-rate  in  different  countries,  XIX.  517. 


328  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Causes  of  death,  XVII.  686. 

As  to  suicide,  XIII.  179;  XXII.  629. 

The  bonus  system,  XIII.  178. 

The  Tontine  system,  XIII.  183  ;  IX.  181. 

Lorenzo  Tonti,  XXIII.  <\/\/\. 

Non-forfeiture  laws  in  the  United  States,  XIII.  182. 

ACCIDENT  OR  CASUALTY  INSURANCE,  XIII.  161. 
Accident  Insurance  in  the  United  States,  sup.  34. 
Minor  forms  of  insurance,  XIII.  161. 

Friendly  Societies,  IX.  780. 
Cooperation,  V.  338. 

Mutual  benefit  orders,  IX.  782. 
Societies.  .  . 

Collecting  societies,  IX.  783. 

Mutual  Benefit  Societies  in  the  United  States, 
sup.  417. 

Fraternal  societies,  sup.  418. 

Oddfellows,  XVII.  723  ;  sup.  417. 

Order  of  Foresters,  IX.  782  ;  sup.  418. 

See  also,  in  this  GUIDE,  the  chapters  entitled,  The  Me- 
chanic, The  Banker  and  The  Financier,  and  The  Lawyer. 


THE  LAWYER.  329 


CHAPTER  XLVIII. 

THE   LAWYER. 

"  Points  more  than  all  the  lawyers  in  Bohemia  can  learnedly  handle." 
—A  Winter's  Tale. 

WHO  is  there  who  does  not  need  to  know  something 
about  law  ?  It  is,  of  course,  not  to  be  presumed  that 
every  man  can  be  his  own  lawyer,  for  there  are  times 
when  the  advice  and  assistance  of  trained  members  of  the 
legal  profession  are  indispensable.  Nevertheless,  there 
are  certain  legal  terms  and  processes  with  which  every 
person  ought  to  be  familiar.  Questions  are  constantly 
arising  concerning  various  matters  connected  with  the 
operation  and  enforcement  of  the  laws,  and  it  frequently 
happens  that  much  depends  upon  one's  ability  to  answer 
these  questions  readily  and  correctly.  You  might  not  deem 
it  worth  your  while  to  consult  a  professional  lawyer  about 
such  matters,  and  yet  if  you  should  have  a  book  at  hand 
to  which  you  could  turn  at  once  for  the  desired  informa- 
tion, you  would  not  remain  in  ignorance  concerning  them. 

The  man  who  has  a  law  library,  however  small,  has  often- 
times no  little  advantage  over  the  man  who  has  neither 
the  library  nor  the  legal  education.  The  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  is  itself,  within  certain  limits,  an  extensive  li- 
brary of  legal  lore,  wherein  every  important  sub- 

A  Law      ject  connected  with  this  branch  of  knowledge 

Library,     receives  appropriate  attention.     To  the  man  of 

business  it  is  better  than  a  law  library,  because 

he  can  refer  to  it  so  much  more  readily.     Then,  too,  its 


330  GUIDE  TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 

articles  have  none  of  that  redundant  verbiage  which  so 
often  makes  the  ordinary  law-book  so  tiresome  and  un- 
satisfactory. They  crystallize  the  topics ;  they  show  the 
gift  of  brilliant  minds  in  making  principles  clear  above 
everything  else. 

To  the  young  man  who  is  desirous  of  following  the  pro- 
fession of  law  as  the  business  of  his  life,  these 
Law          articles  are  worth  many  times  the  entire  cost  of  a 
Students.       set  of  the  Britannica.     The  student  who  makes 
himself  thoroughly  familiar  with  all  these  articles 
in  their  proper  sequence,  will  know  more  law  than  many 
a  graduate  from  our  law  colleges.     Almost  any  man  of  in- 
telligence, by  following  the  courses  of  reading  here  indi- 
cated, may  lay  the  foundations  for  a  successful  legal  career. 

I.    INTRODUCTORY. 

Read  the  special  article  on  Legal  Education,  sup. 
1856.  Then  keeping  well  in  mind  the  points  therein 
mentioned,  study  the  article  on  Law,  XIV.  354,  which  is 
of  itself  "as  good  as  a  condensed  Blackstone." 

Then  read,  as  occasion  may  permit,  the  following  ar- 
ticles or  parts  of  articles  : 
The  origin  of  law,  VIII.  624. 
Plato  on  law,  XIX.  210. 
Roman  schools  of  law,  XIV.  164. 
Roman  law,  XX.  669. 

Justinian's  codification,  XIII.  792  ;  VI.   105  ; 
XX.  712. 

Early  English  law,  VIII.  276. 
Administration  of  law  in  England,  VIII.  261.' 
English  codes  of  law,  VI.  104. 
Codes  of  Roman  law,  XX.  710. 
Code  of  Napoleon,  IX.  614;  XVII.  205. 
Inns  of  Court,  XIII.  87. 


THE   LAWYER.  331 

Jurisprudence,  XIV.  354. 

II.    LAWS   IN   HISTORY. 

Laws  of  Moses,  III.  634;  XVI.  860;  XIII.  397. 

Laws  of  Confucius,  VI.  258. 

Laws  of  Mohammed,  XVI.  591,  594. 

Laws  of  Lycurgus,  XXII.  370. 

Agrarian  laws,  I.  287. 

Salic  laws,  XXI.  212. 

Brehon  laws,  IV.  252  ;  XIII.  218. 

American  blue  laws,  sup.  504. 

HI.   GREAT  LAWGIVERS  AND    LAWYERS. 

Moses,  XVI.  860;  XIII.  397. 

Confucius,  VI.  258. 
Biographies.  _.     ,  ,,        TT_ 

Buddha,  IV.  424. 

Mohammed,  XVI.  545. 
Zoroaster,  XXIV.  822. 

Lycurgus,  XV.  95. 
Solon,  XXII.  353. 
Justinian,  XIII.  792. 
Alfred  the  Great,  I.  506. 

Savigny,  XXI.  326. 
Thibaut,  XXIII.  300. 
Zachariae,  XXIV.  762. 
Grotius,  XI.  217. 
Vico,  XXIV.  211. 

Sir  Edward  Coke,  VI.  1 19. 
Sir  William  Blackstone,  III.  800. 
Sir  John  Fortescue,  IX.  420. 
Daniel  Webster,  XXIV.  417. 


332  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

IV.   GENERAL  BRANCHES  OF  LAW. 

Common  Law,  VI.  208. 

Constitutional  law,  VI.  309. 

Criminal  law,  VI.  587  ;  IX.  124. 

Canon  law,  V.  15  ;  XIX.  499;  V.  551. 

Ecclesistical  law,  VII.  627. 

Military  law,  XVI.  295  ;  IV.  587. 

Martial  law,  VI.  517. 

Mercantile  law,  sup.  2038. 

Maritime  law,  XXI.  589. 

International  law,  XIII.  190;  X.  161 ;  XII.  152. 

Foreign  laws,  sup.  1309. 

V.   SPECIAL  LAWS  OR  CLASSES  OF  LAWS. 

Laws  of  agriculture,  I.  298. 

Laws  relating  to  the  tenure  of  land,  XIV.  259  ;  I.  406. 

Homestead  laws  of  the  United  States,  XII.  123. 

Landlord  and  tenant,  XIV.  272. 

Leases,  I.  341. 

Laws  concerning  real  estate,  XX.  304. 

Law  of  fences  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1257. 

Law  of  domicile,  sup.  1687. 

Laws  concerning  husband  and  wife,  XII.  400  ;  sup.  1998. 

Marriage  laws,  XV.  565. 

Marriage  laws  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1998. 

Laws  of  divorce  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1055. 

Laws  relating  to  women,  XXIV.  637. 

Laws  regarding  infants,  XIII.  i. 

Laws  concerning  personal  estate,  XVIII.  664. 
Exemption  laws  of  the  United  States,  sup.  1228. 
Laws  of  intestacy,  XIII.  197. 


THE   LAWYER.  333 

Laws  relating  to  wills,  XXIV.  570. 
Laws  of  primogeniture,  XIII.  733. 
Partnership  laws,  XVII.  329;  sup.  2303. 
Bankrupt  laws,  III.  341-345  ;  sup.  342. 

Labor  laws,  sup.  1198;  XIV.  165. 

Factory  laws  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1234. 

Factory  laws,  VIII.  844. 

Laws  of  apprenticeship,  I.  212. 

Corporation  laws,  VI.  432. 

Port  laws,  XIII.  462. 

Press  laws,  XIII.  710. 

Corn  laws,  VI.  408. 

Corn  laws  in  the  United  States,  VI.  413. 

Election  laws  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1130. 

Elections,  VIII.  2. 

Ballot— Australian  ballot  laws,  III.  288. 

Laws  relating  to  public  health,  XX.  96. 

Public  health  laws  in  the  United  States,  XV.  798. 

Lunacy  laws,  XV.  798. 

Quarantine  laws,  XX.  153. 

Burial  acts,  IV.  537. 

Medical  laws,  XV.  798. 

Liquor  laws,  XIV.  688. 

Liquor  laws  of  the  United  States,  sup.  1892. 

Sumptuary  laws,  XXII.  643. 

The  Army  Act,  XVI.  297. 

Riot  laws,  XX.  564. 

Laws  of  treason,  XXIII.  525-530. 

Pension  laws  of  the  United  States,  sup.  2344. 

Passport  laws,  XVIII.  344. 

Passport  laws  of  the  United  States,  sup.  2307. 


334  GUIDE  TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 

Patent  laws,  XVIII.  354;    of  the  United  States,  sup. 
2320. 

Copyright  laws,  VI.  356. 

Copyright  laws  of  the  United  States,  VI.  365. 
Recent  revision  of  copyright  laws,  sup.  913. 
English  laws  of  copyright,  XIV.  546. 
International  copyright,  I.  720. 

Municipal  laws,  VI.  435. 

Riparian  laws,  XX.  265. 

Sea  laws,  XXL  589. 

Fishery  laws,  sup.  1281. 

Game  laws,  X.  61  ;  of  the  United  States,  sup.  1362. 

Laws  of  the  road,  sup.  2555. 
Laws  of  auctions,  III.  68. 
Laws  relating  to  gambling,  X.  66. 
Laws  relating  to  lotteries,  XV.  II. 
Laws  relating  to  travelers,  sup.  2936. 
For  additional  references,  see  the  chapter  in  this  GUIDE 
entitled,  The  American  Citizen. 

VI.   ADMINISTRATION   OF  JUSTICE. 

Administration    of  justice    in   primitive   communities, 
VIII.  624. 

Judicial  combat,  VII.  511  ;  XVII.  820. 
Areopagus,  II.  481. 

Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  II.  210; 
XIII.  789;  sup.  2824. 

T  1'       •       1  ITT  S  ' 

Judicial  courts,  VI.  516. 

Courts  of  the  United  States,  sup.  930. 
Federal  courts  of  the  United  States,  XXIII.  750. 
United  States  court  of  claims,  sup.  814. 
Court  of  private  land  claims,  sup.  930. 


THE  LAWYER.  335 

Courts  of  appeal,  II.  209  ;  VI.  516;  XIII.  765. 
Criminal  courts,  VI.  516. 
Justices'  courts,  XXII.  641. 

English  courts  of  justice,  VIII.  261  ;  XX.  311. 
Quarter  sessions,  XX.  159. 
Courts  of  summary  jurisdiction,  XXII.  641. 
High  court  of  justiciary,  XII.  790. 
Courts  of  oyerand  terminer,  XVIII.  106. 
Courts  of  chancery,  V.  389;  XX.  311. 
High  court  of  admiralty,  I.  158. 
Vice-admiralty  courts,  I.  160;  XXI.  607. 

Judge,  XIII.  762. 

Prerogatives  of  judges,  XIX.  673. 
Officers.        T     i-   •   1  ATT         s 

Judicial  costume,  VI.  376. 

Justice  of  the  peace,  XXIII.  789. 

Grand  jury,  sup.  1439. 

Trial  by  jury,  VIII.  298  ;  XIII.  783  ;  XXIII.  555. 

Trial  by  court-martial,  VI.  517. 

Contempt  of  court,  VI.  318. 

Barristers,  III.  344. 
Attorney,  III.  52;  sup.  284. 
Sheriff,  XXI.  800;  VI.  513. 
Constable,  VI.  294 ;  sup.  899. 
Advocates'  Faculty  in  Scotland,  sup.  53. 
For  additional  references,  see  the  chapter  in  this  GUIDE 
entitled,  The  Magistrate  and  the  Policeman. 

VII.    LAW   TERMS   AND   LEGAL  PROCESSES. 

The  following  is  a  partial  list  of  LAW  TERMS  and 
legal  processes  explained  in  the  Britannica,  to  which  it 
may  be  necessary  at  some  time  to  refer. 


336  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Abatement,  I.  5  ;  sup.  10. 
Abduction,  I.  31. 
Abettor,  I.  48. 
Abeyance,  I.  48 ;  sup.  27. 

Abstract   of  title,  sup.  30.     See,  also,   Con- 
Law  Terms,  veyancing. 

etc.  Acceptance,  I.  82. 

Accession,  I.  83. 
Accessory,  I.  83. 
Accident  in  law,  sup.  33. 
Accomplice,  sup.  36. 
Accord  and  satisfaction,  sup.  36. 
Acknowledgment,  sup.  39. 
Acquittal,  sup.  40. 
Act  of  God,  sup.  41. 
Ademption,  sup.  47. 
Action,  I.  132  ;  sup.  41. 
Adjudication,  I.  154. 
Administrator,  I.  154;  sup.  50. 
Adoption,  I.  163. 
Adulteration,  I.  167. 
Adultery,  I.  177  ;  sup.  51. 
Advancement,  sup.  51. 
Advocate,  I.  178. 
Advowson,  I.  179. 
Affidavit,  I.  226  ;  sup.  57. 
Affinity,  I.  226. 

Age,  Legal,  sup.  84 ;  of  Consent,  sup.  84. 
Agent,  I.  280. 
Agistment,  I.  283. 
Agreement,  sup.  86. 
Agnates,  I.  283. 
Aiding  and  abetting,  sup.  IO2. 
Alias,  I.  574. 


THE  LAWYER.  337 


Alibi,  I.  574;  sup.  126. 
Alien,  I.  574. 
Aliment,  I.  576. 
Alimony,  I.  576  ;  sup.  127. 
Allodium,  I.  576. 
Amendment,  sup.  152. 
Annuities,  II.  72. 
Appeal,  II.  208;  sup.  206. 
Apportionment,  sup.  209. 
Appraiser,  II.  212. 
Apprenticeship,  II.  212. 
Appropriation,  sup.  209. 
Arbitrage,  II.  311. 
Arbitration,  II.  311  ;  sup.  215 
Arraignment,  II.  628. 
Arrest,  II.  629  ;  sup.  24;, 
Arrest  of  judgment,  sup.  248. 
Arson,  II.  635. 
Assault,  II.  724. 
Assets,  II.  729  ;  sup.  268. 
Assignment,  II.  729. 
Assize,  II.  729. 
Association,  II.  730. 
Attachment,  III.  50;  sup.  283. 
Attainder,  III.  52. 
Attorney,  III.  62-,  sup.  284. 
Barristers,  III.  344. 
Bench  warrant,  sup.  415. 
Blasphemy,  III.  805. 
Bigamy,  III.  668. 
Bill  of  exceptions,  sup.  470. 
Bona  fide,  sup.  514. 
Bounty,  sup.  533. 
Breach  of  promise,  sup.  534. 


338  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 

Bribery,  IV.  278  ;  sup.  563. 

Burden  of  proof,  sup.  624. 

Burgage,  IV.  532. 

Capias,  sup.  689. 

Casuistry,  V.  203. 

Certiorari,  sup.  737. 

Contract,  VI.  322. 

Costs,  VI.  451. 

Conveyancing,  VI.  324. 

Codicil,  sup.  853. 

Conspiracy,  VI.  292. 

Company,  VI.  221,  434. 

Contraband,  VI.  320. 

Conveyancing,  sup.  905 

Crime,  VI.  582. 

Damages,  VI.  787;  sup.  1228. 

Deodand,  VII.  100. 

Deposition,  sup.  1030. 

Descent,  sup.  1033. 

Desertion,  sup.  1034. 

Domicile,  VII.  351. 

Divorce,  VII.  300-305. 

Duel,  VII.  511;  XVII.  820. 

Duress,  sup.  1096. 

Embezzlement,  VIII.  159. 

Employer  and  employee,  sup.  1198. 

Equity,  VIII.  510. 

Entail,  VIII.  450. 

Estoppel,  VIII.  563. 

Eviction,  sup.  1224. 

Evidence,  VIII.  738. 

Emigration,  VIII.  173. 

Exchange,  VIII.  783. 

Execution,  sup.  1228. 


THE   LAWYER.  339 


Executors  and  administrators,  VIII.  800. 

Ex  post  facto,  sup.  1231. 

Extradition,  VIIL  813;  sup.  1231. 

Factors,  VIIL  843. 

Felony,  IX.  68. 

Flotsam  and  Jetsam,  IX.  342. 

Forgery,  IX.  413. 

Franchise,  sup.  1325. 

Fraud,  IX.  726;  sup.  1332. 

Games  and  gaming,  X.  66. 

Gavelkind,  X.  119. 

Garnishment,  sup.  1375, 

Genealogy,  X.  142. 

Gift,  X.  590. 

Guilds,  XI.  359. 

Habeas  corpus,  sup.  1503. 

Hiring,  XII.  I. 

Holidays  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1595, 

Homestead,  XII.  122. 

Homicide,  XII.  124. 

Hotch-potch,  XII.  308. 

Impeachment,  XII.  717. 

Indictment,  XII.  842. 

Infamy  and  infamous  crime,  sup.  1679. 

Information,  sup.  1679. 

Insurance,  XIII.  161. 

Infant,  XIII.  I. 

Infringement,  sup.  1680. 

Inheritance,  XIII.  ;•/-. 

Injunction,  sup.   1682. 

Insanity,  XIII.  in. 

Intestacy,  XIII.  197. 

Kidnapping,  XIV.  69. 

Legacy,  sup.  1856. 


340  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Libel  and  slander,  XIV.  505  ;  sup.  1872. 

Lien,  XIV.  569. 

License,  sup.  1878. 

Limitation,  statutes  of,  XIV.  65. 

Limitation  of  actions,  sup.  1887. 

Misdemeanor,  XVI.  502. 

Monopoly,  XVI.  757. 

Mortgage,  XVI.  848. 

Murder,  XVII.  52. 

Outlaw,  XVIII.  75. 

Oyer  and  terminer,  XVIII.  106. 

Pardon,  XVIII.  271. 

Partition,  XVIII.  328. 

Partnership,  sup.  2303. 

Patents,  XVIII.  354. 

Payment,  XVIII.  440. 

Penalty,  sup.  2335. 

Perjury,  XVIII.  548. 

Petition,  XVIII.  703. 

Pension,  sup.  2344. 

Pleading,  XIX.  217. 

Penitentiary,  XIX.  748. 

Poor,  XIX.  462. 

Prescription,  XIX.  704. 

Prisons,  XIX.  747. 

Primogeniture,  XIX.  733. 

Quarantine,  XX.  153. 

Quare  impedit,  XX.  158. 

Quo  warranto,  XX.  189;  sup.  2487. 

Quorum,  sup.  2486. 

Receivers,  sup.  2516. 

Recognizance,  XX.  309. 

Records,  XX.  310. 

Registration,  XX.  342. 


THE  LAWYER.  341 

Rent,  XX.  402. 

Replevin,  XX.  404. 

Rights,  Personal,  XX.  555. 

Riot,  XX.  564. 

Sale,  XXI.  205. 

Sea  laws,  XXI.  583. 

Settlement,  XXI.  692. 

Simony,  XXII.  84. 

Smuggling,  XXII.  185. 

Solicitor,  XXII.  251. 

Stamp,  XXII.  448. 

Subpoena,  XXII.  642 ;  XXIV.  696. 

Succession,  XXII.  616. 

Summons,  XXII.  642. 

Sumptuary,  XXII.  643. 

Surrender,  XXII.  692. 

Taxation,  XXIII.  85  ;  IX.  117. 

Theft,  XXIII.  231. 

Threats,  sup.  2904. 

Treason,  XXIII.  525. 

Tort,  XXIII.  454;  VI.  587. 

Trespass,  XXIII.  552. 

Trial,  XXIII.  555. 

Trust,  XXIII.  595. 

Usury,  XXIV.  17. 

Venue,  XXIV.  162. 

Wills,  XXIV.  570. 

Witness,  XXIV.  623  ;  VIII.  743. 

Wreck,  XXIV.  687. 

Writ,  XXIV.  692. 

VIII.    TEN   BOOKS   FOR   LAWYERS. 

Justinian's  Institutes,  XIII.  794. 

Hunter's  Exposition  of  Roman  Law,  XIV.  362. 


342  GUIDE  TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 

Blackstone's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  England, 
III.  801. 

Littleton  on  Tenures,  XIV.  704. 

Coke's  Institutes  ("Coke  upon  Littleton"),  VI.  120. 

Austin's  Province  of  Jurisprudence  Determined,  XIV. 
354- 

Sir  Henry  Maine's  Early  History  of  Institutions,  XIV. 

364- 

Hobbes's  Leviathan,  VIII.  422. 

Jeremy  Bentham's  Rationale  of  Judicial  Evidence,  III. 
576. 

Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England,  XI.  393. 

See,  also,  the  chapter  entitled  The  American  Citizen, 
in  this  GUIDE. 


THE  MAGISTRATE  AND  POLICEMAN.  343 


CHAPTER   XLIX. 

THE   MAGISTRATE   AND   POLICEMAN. 

"  Your  scope  is  as   mine   own,  so  to  enforce  or  qualify  the  laws." 

— Measure  for  Measure. 

THAT  branch  of  criminal  justice  which  comprises  a 
methodical  system  for  the  prevention  and  de- 
Criminal  tection  of  crime  is  very  appropriately  called 
Justice.  The  Police.  The  object  of  the  police  system, 
however,  extends  beyond  the  mere  suppression 
of  crime,  and  includes  the  regulation  of  whatever  is  in- 
jurious to  the  peace,  morality,  and  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity. It  is  very  evident  that  the  person  who  is  invested 
with  authority  to  enforce  the  observance  of  law  and  order 
should  have  at  least  some  general  knowledge  of  the  ob- 
jects, aims,  and  methods  of  police  justice.  The  history  of 
crime  and  of  the  public  efforts  constantly  necessary  for 
its  suppression  presents  many  problems  for  the  considera- 
tion of  lawmakers,  while  at  the  same  time  it  affords  much 
food  for  thought  to  those  who  are  entrusted  with  the  duty 
of  enforcing  the  laws.  The  following  references  will 
direct  readers  of  the  Britannica  to  a  vast  amount  of  inter- 
esting information  relative  to  crime  and  its  punishment 
and  the  various  duties  of  the  policeman.  The  policeman 
himself  wiH  find  these  readings  not  only  entertaining,  but 
in  the  highest  degree  profitable. 

^Edile,  Roman  public  officer,  I.  180. 

Quaestor,  Roman  magistrate,  XX.  145. 

Sheriff,  XXI.  800. 


344  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Constable,  VI.  294. 

Magistrate,  XV.  216;  XIII.  762,  789. 

Police  Commissioners,  XIX.  337. 

_  Policemen  in  the  United  States,  XIX.  341. 

Officers. 

Police  in  various  countries,  XIX.  341-344. 

Detectives,  XIX.  337. 
Pinkerton  laws,  sup.  2392. 
Gaoler,  XIX.  747. 

Arrest,  II.  629. 
Warrant,  XXIV.  371. 

Subpoena,  XXII.  642. 

0       A          Summons,  XXIV.  696 ;  XIX.  220. 
Procedure.     ^  xxm    ^ 

Jury,  XIII.  783. 
Justice  of  the  peace,  XIII.  789. 
Court  of  justice,  XXII.  641. 
Witnesses,  XXIV.  623  ;  VIII.  743  ;  XIX.  777. 
Plea,  XIX.  219. 
Advocate,  I.  127. 
Judgment,  XIII.  764. 
Habeas  corpus,  XI.  358. 
Corpus  delicti,  sup.  922. 
Pardon,  XVIII.  271. 

Crime,  VI.  582. 

Roman  laws  in  relation  to  crime,  XX.  675. 

Criminal  law,  VI.  587. 

Criminal  courts,  VI.  516. 

Criminality,  sup.  942. 
Criminal  anthropology,  sup.  196. 
Identification  of  criminals,  sup.  943. 
Bartillon  system  of  identification,  sup.  436. 
Vidocq,  the  famous  French  detective,  sup.  3045. 


THE   MAGISTRATE  AND   POLICEMAN.  345 

Burglary,  sup.  625. 

Crime  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2986. 

Punishment  of  crime,  XIX.  747. 
Punish-         Punishment  under  Roman  law,  XX.  675. 

ment.  Stocks,  XXII.  560. 

Branks  for  scolds,  sup.  550. 
Torture,  XXIII.  460. 
Drowning  for  punishment,  sup.  1083. 
The  garrote,  sup.  1371. 
The  knout,  XXI.  91. 
Whipping-post,  sup.  2138. 
Capital  punishment,  sup.  689. 
Imprisonment,  XIX.  747. 
Prisons,  sup.  2451. 

Prison  reform,  IX.  307,  805  ;  XII.  320. 
Prison  discipline,  XIX.  747. 
Reformatory  schools,  XX.  338. 
Reformatories,  sup.  2525. 
Transportation  of  convicts,  XIX.  748,  750. 
Ticket  of  leave,  convicts  on,  VI.  590. 
Penitentiaries,  XIX.  748. 

Prison  discipline  in  the  United  States,  XIX.  763. 
Work-houses,  XIX.  468,  476. 

For   further  references,  see  the    chapter   entitled,  The 
Lawyer,  in  this  GUIDE. 


346  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  L. 

THE  PHYSICIAN. 

"Then  give  place  to  the  physician,  for  the  Lord  hath  created  him:  let 
him  not  go  from  thee,  for  thou  hast  need  of  him." — Ecdesiasticus. 

MEDICINE,  the  subject-matter  of  one  of  the  learned  pro- 
fessions, includes  a  wide  range  of  scientific  knowledge  and 
skill.    In  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  it  receives 

a  large  share  of  attention,  both  in  its  historical 
Medicine.  .  .£  .  . 

and  scientific  aspects.     The  special  article  on 

this  subject,  XV.  794-817,  gives  first  a  synopti- 
cal view  of  medicine,  and  then,  in  the  second  part,  traces 
its  history  from  its  small  beginnings  in  Greece  down  to 
the  present  time.  Let  us  reverse  this  order,  and  present 
first  a  series  of  readings  or  references  on 

THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks  the  actual  organization  of 
the  healing  art  was  ascribed  to  ^Esculap'ius  (or  Asclepius), 
of  whom  we  have  a  special  notice  in  I.  209.  We  are  now 
ready  to  read  the  section  on  medicine  as  portrayed  in  the 
Homeric  poems,  XV.  799,  after  which  we  shall  take  up  the 
following  subjects  in  their  order: 

Hippocratic  medicine,  XV.  800. 

Hippocrates,  "the  father  of  medicine,"  XL  852;  his 
surgery,  XXII.  674. 

Alexandrian  school  of  medicine,  XV.  800,  and  XXII. 
674. 


THE   PHYSICIAN.  347 

Roman  medicine,  XV.  802  ;  Asclepiades  of  Prusa,  II. 
679;  Galen,  X.  23;  Aretaeus,  II.  485. 

Byzantine  School  of  Medicine,  XV.  804. 

Arabian  medicine,  I.  805,  XV.  805  ;  Avicenna,  III.  152  ; 
Averroes,  III.  149;  Maimonides,  XV.  295. 

Medicine  in  the  Middle  Ages,  XV.  806. 

The  Period  of  the  Renaissance,  XV.  807.  See,  also, 
Linacre,XIV.652  ;  Rabelais,  XX.  193  ;  Paracelsus,  XVIII. 
234,  and  XXII.  676  (see,  in  this  volume,  the  references  to 
Alchemy,  pages  137,  138). 

Revival  of  ancient  medicine,  XV.  809. 

Medical  Associations  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2024. 
American  Academy  of  Medicine,  sup.  32. 
Medical  education  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2025. 

GREAT   PHYSICIANS. 

John  Kaye,  founder  of  Caius  College,  IV.  648. 

William  Harvey,  and  the  discovery  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  XI.  502. 

Van  Helmont,  XI.  638. 

Borelli,  and  the  latro-Physical  school,  IV.  53. 

Francis  de  le  Boe,  and  the  latro-Chemical  school,  XV. 
8 10. 

Thomas  Sydenham,  "the  English  Hippocrates,"  XXII. 
805.  He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  John  Locke,"  the  great 
sensational  philosopher,"  who  was  also  a  thoroughly  trained 
physician,  and  practiced  medicine  privately,  XIV.  751. 

Hermann  Boerhaave,  the  organizer  of  the  modern 
method  of  clinical  instruction,  III.  854. 

George  Ernest  Stahl,  originator  of  the  theory  of  "  ani- 
mism," XXII  444;  II.  55. 

Morgagni,  who  was  the  first  to  make  morbid  anatomy  a 
branch  of  medical  research,  XVI.  821. 


348  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

William  Cullen,  VI  694. 

John  Brown,  "  the  last  systematizer  of  medicine" — origi- 
nator of  the  Brunonian  system — IV.  384. 

Hahnemann,  founder  of  the  Homoeopathic  school,  XI. 
373 ;  XV.  814. 

Rudolf  Virchow,  the  German  pathologist,  sup.  3050. 

Edward  Jenner,  discoverer  of  vaccination  for  smallpox, 
XIII.  622;  XXIV.  23. 

Leopold  Avenbrugger,  inventor  of  the  method  of  rec- 
ognizing diseases  of  the  chest  by  percussion,  III.  100, 

145- 

Laennec,  inventor  of  the  method  of  physical  diagnosis 
by  the  stethoscope,  XIV.  200. 

Erasmus  Darwin,  VI.  830;  XV.  816. 

Richard  Bright,  discoverer  of  the  disease  known  by  his 
name,  sup.  571. 

William  C.  Rontgen,  discoverer  of  the  Rontgen  rays, 
sup.  2574. 

John  Abercrombie,  I.  36. 

John  Abernethy,  I.  47. 

Erik  Acharius,  I.  94. 

Sir  J.  F.  E.  Acton,  I.  133. 

Alexander  of  Tralles,  I.  486. 

Prospero  Alpini,  I.  619. 

Charles  Alston,  I.  638. 

Johann  Conrad  Amman,  I.  739. 

John  Arbuthnot,  II.  325. 

Neil  Arnot,  II.  627. 

Aspasius,  II.  714. 

Andrew  Combe,  VI.  179. 

John  Elliotson,  VIII.  148. 

Austin  Flint,  sup.  1289. 

Robert  Koch,  discoverer  of  the  "  lymph  "  remedy  for 
consumption,  sup.  1804. 


THE   PHYSICIAN.  349 

Sir  Morell  Mackenzie,  the  great  throat  specialist,  sup. 
1958. 

Louis  Pasteur,  discoverer  of  the  cause  and  cure  of  hy- 
drophobia, sup.  1642,  2308. 

But  it  is  unnecessary  for  the  GUIDE  to  go  farther  in 
this  direction.  To  give  a  complete  list  of  the  men  who 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  this  profession  would 
transcend  the  limits  assigned  to  this  chapter. 

SYNOPTICAL  VIEW   OF    MEDICINE. 

See  the  special  article  on  this  subject,  XV.  794.  The  fol- 
lowing articles,  or  parts  of  articles,  may  also  be  consulted 
as  occasion  requires  : 

Relation  of  medicine  to  the  body  politic,  XV.  797. 

Subdivisions  of  Medicine  as  an  art  and  discipline,  XV. 
796. 

Surgery,  XXII.  672. 

Surgical  pathology,  sup.  2826. 

Obstetrics — Gynaecology,  XV.  797. 

Dermatology,  XXII.  120;  XVIII.  269. 

Ophthalmology,  XVII.  780. 

Laryngology,  XXIII.  319. 

Otology,  VII.  591. 

Dentistry,  VII.  95  ;  artificial  teeth,  XIII.  523  ;  teeth, 
XXII.  107;  human  teeth,  VII.  232. 

PATHOLOGY,  the  doctrine  of  disease,  XVIII.  361-407 
(very  fully  illustrated). 

See  Miscellaneous  Topics,  below. 

THE  HUMAN   BODY. 

ANATOMY,  I.  799-908.  This  is  a  very  complete  treat- 
ise, describing  the  special  anatomy  of  the  human  body  in 
a  state  of  health.  It  is  amply  illustrated  with  diagrams 
and  full-page  plates. 


35O  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Skeleton,  XX.  105. 

Muscles,  XIX.  8. 

Vascular  system,  or  organs  of  circulation,  XXIV.  95. 

Digestive  organs,  VII.  221. 

The  skin,  I.  897. 

Nervous  system,  XIX.  23. 

PHYSIOLOGY,  XIX.  8-43.  This  valuable  article  is  in 
two  parts  (part  I.,  general  view;  part  II.,  the  nervous 
system). 

Comparative  Physiology,  III.  684. 

Digestion,  VII.  221. 

Circulation,  XXIV.  98  ;  XI.  503. 

Nutrition,  XVII.  675. 

Absorption,  I.  58  ;  XVII.  677. 

Animal  heat,  XVIII.  393. 

Vivisection,  sup.  3058. 

HYGIENE,  XII.  566.  This  is  a  short  article  of  a  popular 
character,  referring  to  (i)  climatic  conditions,  (2)  site  of 
dwellings,  (3)  sanitation  of  dwellings,  (4)  ventilation,  (5) 
cleansing,  (6)  water  supply,  (7)  work  and  exercise,  etc. 

Dietetics,  VII.  200. 

Athletic  training  and  exercise,  III.  12  ;  XXI.  60. 

Ventilation,  XXIV.  157. 

Sanitation  of  dwellings,  XXI.  714. 

SURGERY. 

The  general  article  on  this  subject,  XXII.  672-692,  is  a 
complete  treatise  of  great  interest  and  practical  value.  It 

embraces 

History  and  (0  The  history  of  surgery,  XV.  672.  ' 
Practice.     (2)   Practice  of  surgery,  XV.  677. 

Treatment  of  injuries,  XV.  680. 
Process  of  repair,  XV.  682. 
Treatment  of  diseases,  XV.  683. 


THE   PHYSICIAN.  351 

Operative  surgery,  XV.  688. 

The  supplementary  article  on  American  surgery,  sup. 
2826-2832,  describes  the  recent  wonderful  advancements 
made  in  the  practice  of  this  art. 

Inflammation  and  ulceration,  sup.  2827. 

Fractures,  sup.  2828. 

Tumors,  sup.  2828. 

Operative  surgery,  and  the  brain,  sup.  2829. 

Abdominal  surgery,  sup.  2830. 

Surgical  treatment  of  appendicitis,  sup.  2831. 

Surgical  treatment  for  kidney  diseases,  sup.  2832. 

Several  other  related  topics  are  treated  specially,  each 
under  its  own  title.  Among  them  are 

Blood-poisoning,  XXI.  666. 

Tracheotomy,  sup.  2933. 

Detection  of  blood-stains,  sup.  501. 

Artificial  limbs,  sup.  255. 

SCHOOLS  OF   MEDICINE,  ETC. 

Allopathy,  sup.  134. 

American  Eclectic  School  of  Medicine,  sup.  153. 

Homoeopathy,  XII.  126. 

Hydropathy,  XII.  542  ;  III.  438. 

Isopathy,  sup.  1717. 

Massage,  or  Swedish  Movement,  see  Lingj  sup.  1889. 

MISCELLANEOUS   TOPICS. 

Schizomycetes  —  the  germ  theory  of  disease,  XXI. 
398-407  (illustrated);  Bacteriology,  sup.  311.  The  latter 
is  an  exceedingly  valuable  article,  presenting  the  results  of 
the  latest  researches. 

Embryology,  VIII.  163. 

Anaesthesia,  I.  789 ;  sup.  174. 

Apoplexy,  II.  193. 


352  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Antidotes,  XIX.  276. 
Auscultation,  III.   100. 
Bronchitis,  IV.  362. 

Catarrh,  V.  218,  XVIII.  377;  of  the  stomach, 

XXIL  574' 
Topics.  Cholera,  V.  682.     The  latest  discoveries  and 

theories  relating  to  this  disease  are  described 
in  sup.  795. 

Croup,  VI.  616;  XXIII.  320. 
Dietetics,  VII.  200. 
Digestive  organs,  VII.  221. 
Diphtheria,  VII.  249. 
Drowning,  VII.  473. 
Enteritis,  sup.  1207. 
Fever,  IX.  125. 
Goitre,  X.  739. 
Gout,  XI.  5. 

Heart  diseases,  XI.  552. 
Hip-joint  diseases,  sup.  1585. 
Hydrophobia,  XII.  545. 
Hysteria,  XII.  600. 
Insanity,  XIII.  95. 
Jaundice,  XIII.  598. 
Leprosy,  XIV.  468. 
Longevity,  XIV.  857. 
Malaria,  XV.  316. 
Measles,  XV.  657. 
Neuralgia,  XVII.  363. 
Nutrition,  XVII.  667. 
Ophthalmology,  XVII.  780. 
Paralysis,  XVIII.  255. 
Parasitism,  XVIII.  258. 
Pharmacopoeia,  XVIII.  730. 
Phrenology,  XVIII.  842. 


THE   PHYSICIAN.  353 

Phthisis,  XVIII.  855. 

Plague,  XIX.  159. 

Pleurisy,  XIX.  222. 

Pneumonia,  XIX.  249. 

Poisons,  XIX.  275  ;  XVIII.  406. 

Public  health,  XX.  96. 

Quarantine,  XX.  153. 

Quinine,  XX.  184. 

Rabies,  XX.  190. 

Scarlet  fever,  XXI.  376. 

Smallpox,  XXII.  162. 

Stammering,  XXII.  447. 

Stomach,  Diseases  of,  XXII.  574. 

Stricture,  sup.  2813. 

Sunstroke,  XXII.  666. 

Throat  diseases,  XXIII.  319. 

Tuberculosis,  see  Phthisis. 

Typhus,  typhoid,  and  relapsing  fevers,  XXIII.  676. 

Vaccination,  XXIV.  23. 

Vascular  system,  XXIV.  95. 

Vesical  diseases,  XXIV.  188. 

Veterinary  science,  XIV.  197. 

Yellow  fever,  XXIV.  734. 

Of  shorter  and  less  important  articles  on. medical  sub- 
jects, the   number  is  so  great  that  we  cannot 
Diseases,       undertake  to  name  them  here.    The  mention  of 
ctc-  a  few,  as  below,  will  serve  to  indicate  the  vast 

amount  of  medical  lore  contained  in  the  Bri- 
tannica : 

Abortion,  I.  52. 
Achor,  sup.  38. 
Ague,  IX.  126. 
Acupressure,  I.  133. 
23 


354  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 

Anchylosis,  II.  9. 
Aneurism,  II.  26. 
Angina  pectoris,  II.  29. 
Asphyxia,  II.  716. 
Asthma,  II.  736. 
Ataxy,  Locomotor,  II.  826. 
Auscultation,  III.  100. 
Bright's  Disease,  IV.  345. 
Cancer,  IV.  800. 
Cautery,  sup.  727. 
Clubfoot,  VI.  42. 
Colic,  VI.  140. 
Corpulence,  VI.  435. 
Cramp,  VI.  572. 
Croup,  VI.  616. 
Diabetes,  VII.  147. 
Endemic  diseases,  sup.  1200. 
Epilepsy,  VIII.  479. 
Erysipelas,  VIII.  531. 
Glanders,  X.  634. 
Hydrophobia,  sup.  1642. 
Paralysis,  XVIII.  255. 
Meningitis,  XVI.  n. 
Rheumatism,  XX.  516. 
Rickets,  XX.  548. 
Whooping-cough,  XII.  154,  etc. 

REMEDIES. 

Remedies  are  treated  in  a  like  comprehensive  manner 
only  a  few  are  named,  merely  as  examples  : 
Antitoxin,  sup.  201. 
Arnica,  II.  623. 
Calomel,  IV.  711. 
Cod-liver  oil,  VI.   104. 


THE   PHYSICIAN.  355 

Emetics,  VIII.  171. 
Epsom  salts,  VIII.  496. 
Galbanum,  X.  22. 
Goa-powder,  X.  707. 
Mercury,  XV.  34. 
Quinine,  XX.  184. 
Tuberculin,  sup.  2954. 
Antagonism  of  drugs,  sup.  193,  etc. 
See  the  references  in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Apothe- 
cary, in  this  GUIDE. 

INSTRUMENTS   USED   IN    MEDICINE  AND   SURGERY. 

Stethoscope,  III.  100. 

Eophone,  sup.  1208. 

Enucleator,  sup.  1208. 

Haemocytometer,  sup.  1504. 

Surgeon's  tools,  sup.  2825. 

Surgeon's  illuminating  apparatus,  sup.  1657. 

Sphygmograph,  sup.  2773. 

Trephine,  sup.  2941. 


356  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  LI. 

THE   APOTHECARY. 

"  By  medicine  life  may  be  prolonged,  yet  death  will  seize  the  doctor 
too. " — Cymbeline. 

THE  word  apothecary  is  derived  from  the  Greek  apo- 
thekc,  the  name  which  Galen  (X.  23  ;  XV.  803)  applied  to 
the  closet  or  room  in  which  he  kept  his  medicines.     In 
America  an  apothecary  is  often  called  a  druggist ;  but  in 
some  sections  of  the  country  the  term  pharma- 
cist, or  pharmaceutical    chemist,  is  frequently 
Definition.  .....  ~  ..  .  .  ,, 

applied  to  him.     Generally  speaking,  an  apothe- 
cary is  a  person  who  compounds  and  sells  drugs 
and  medicines. 

In  1868  an  act  was  passed  by  the  British  Parliament 
prohibiting  any  person  from  engaging  in  this  business 
without  being  registered.  Since  that  time  many  of  the 
States  of  the  American  Union  have  passed  similar  laws. 
In  most  parts  of  our  country  an  apothecary  is  now  obliged 
to  pass  an  examination  before  a  State  Board  of  Pharmacy 
before  he  is  permitted  to  compound  medicines  or  fill 
physicians'  prescriptions.  In  some  of  the  States  this  ex- 
amination is  very  rigid,  and  only  such  applicants  as  are 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  principles  of  pharmacy 
and  its  related  subjects  can  reasonably  hope  to  pass  the 
ordeal.  To  persons  looking  forward  to  an  examination  of 
this  kind,  the  following  references  to  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  will  be  of  much  valuable  assistance  ; 


THE   APOTHECARY.  357 

Short  history  of  the  business  of  apothecary  in  England, 
II.  198. 

Pharmacopoeia,  XVIII.  730. 

International  pharmacopoeia,  XVIII.  731. 

Dispensary,  sup.  1053. 
Pharmaceutical  chemists,  XV.  799. 

Materia  Medica,  XVIII.  730-731. 
Forensic  Medicine,  XV.  778-783. 
Organic  Chemistry,  V.  444. 
Practical  botany  (see  Index,  IV.  162). 
Chemical  affinity,  I.  153,  226. 
Poisons,  XIX.  275  ;  XVII.  231. 
Intoxicants,  VII.  482. 
Narcotics,  XVII.  230. 
Stimulants,  VII.  205. 
Tonics,  sup.  2927. 
Anaesthetics,  XVII.  230. 
Anaesthesia,  I.  789. 

Alcohol,  I.  469. 
Quinine,  XX.  184. 
Opium,  XVII.  231,  787. 

Morphia,  XVII.  231,  792. 
Some  Things     chloroform,  V.  680. 

ch^.,  v.  676, 677. 

Cocaine,  VI.  685  ;  sup.  851. 
Acetylene,  or  ethine  gas,  sup.  37. 
Antacids,  sup.  193. 
Antipyrin,  sup.  199. 
Antitoxin,  sup.  201. 
Aromatic  vinegar,  sup.  246. 
Bromide  of  ethyl,  sup.  582. 
Ethylamine,  sup.  1218. 


358  GUIDE  TO  THE   BRITANNICA. 

Fungicides,  sup.  1350. 

Hippuric  acid,  sup.  1587. 

The  above  list  might  be  indefinitely  extended,  but 
enough  is  here  given  to  show  the  variety  of  information 
that  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  offers  to  the  apothecary 
or  pharmacist. 

Consult  carefully  the  references  given  in  this  GUIDE,  in 
the  chapters  entitled  The  Physician  and,  The  Chemist. 


THE  CHEMIST.  359 

CHAPTER  LIT. 

THE   CHEMIST. 

"  You  are  an  alchemist.     Make  gold  ! " 

— Sha  kespeare. 

HISTORY   OF  CHEMISTRY. 

THE  advancement  of  the  science  of  chemistry  during 

the  past  quarter  of  a  century  has  perhaps  been  greater 

than  during  any  preceding  period  of  similar  length.     The 

article  in  the  American  supplements  to  the  Britannica, 

pages  767-775,  describes  in  a  brief  but  comprehensive 

manner  all  the  more  important  discoveries  made  since  the 

year  1875.    The  complete  history  of  the  science  is  told  in 

the   fifth  volume  of  the  Britannica^  in  the  very  scholarly 

article  on  that  subject,  beginning  on  page  459. 

The  first  mention  of  chemistry  is  found  in 

the  dictionary  of  Suidas,  who  flourished  in  the 

nth  century  (see  XXII.  631).    He  defines  it  as 

"  the  preparation  of  silver  and  gold,"  and  all  the  efforts  of 

the  early  chemists  (whom  we  now  call  alchemists)  seem  to 

have  been  directed  toward  the  finding  of  some  method  for 

making  gold  and  silver. 

From  the  nth  to  the  I5th  century,  alchemy  was  dili- 
gently studied  by  the  philosophers  of  Europe. 

This  period  marks  the  "  sickly  but  imaginative  infancy  " 
of  modern  chemistry  (see  Alchemy,  I.  459).  It  was  Para- 
celsis  who  declared  that  "  the  true  use  of  chemistry  is  not 
to  make  gold,  but  to  prepare  medicines  "  (see  XVIII.  234). 

FAMOUS   CHEMISTS. 

Van  Helmont  (1577-1644),  XI.  638. 
Glauber  (1604-1668),  the  discoverer  of  Glauber's  salt, 
X.  675. 


360  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Robert  Boyle  (1627-1691),  IV.  184. 

F.  Hoffman,  XII.  46. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who  was  the  first  to  indicate  the 
nature  and  modes  of  formation  of  gases,  XVII.  438  (see 
Index). 

Dr.  Stephen  Hales  (1677-1761),  who  was  the  first  to 
describe  the  air  as  ua  fine  elastic  fluid,"  XL  382. 

Dr.  J.  Priestley  (1733-1804),  the  discoverer  of  oxygen 
gas,  XIX.  730. 

Henry  Cavendish  (1731-1810),  the  inventor  of  the  pneu- 
matic trough,  V.  271. 

Lavoisier  (1743-1794),  XIV.  252. 

Dr.  Dalton,  originator  of  the  atomic  theory,  VI.  784. 

Gay-Lussac,  discoverer  of  the  laws  of  the  combinations 
of  gases  by  volume,  X.  121. 

Alexander  Von  Humboldt,  XII.  343. 

Robert  Hare,  sup.  1526. 

Justus  Liebig,  XIV.  565  (see  Index). 

Michael  Faraday,  IX.  29. 

William  Crookes,  sup.  950. 

Robert  Ogden  Doremus,  sup.  1067. 

The  following  supplementary  articles  will  be  found 
interesting  to  every  chemist : 

Animal  Chemistry,  sup.  188. 

Azotized  bodies,  sup.  305. 

Physiological  Chemistry,  sup.  2379. 

Stereochemistry,  sup.  2785. 

CHEMICAL   ELEMENTS. 

All  of  the  more  important  "  elementary  or  simple 
bodies  "  met  with  in  nature  are  described  in  special  arti- 
cles in  the  Britannica.  Among  these  are  : 

Aluminium,  I.  647. 

Antimony,  II.  129. 


THE   CHEMIST.  361 

Arsenic,  II.  634. 

Barium,  V.  525. 

Bismuth,  III.  790. 
Elements.  ' 

Boron,  V.  520. 

Bromine,  IV.  631. 

Calcium,  XIV.  647. 

Carbon,  V.  86. 

Chlorine,  V.  678. 

Cobalt,  VI.  81. 

Copper  (see  Index  volume,  page  1 1 1). 

Gold  (see  Index  volume,  page  184). 

Hydrogen,  XII.  433. 

Iodine,  XIII.  202. 

Iron  (see  Index  volume,  page  226). 

Lead,  XIV.  374. 

Magnesium,  XV.  217. 

Mercury,  XVI.  31. 

Nickel,  XVII.  487. 

Nitrogen,  XVII.  515. 

Oxygen,  V.  479. 

Phosphorus,  XXIII.  815. 

Platinum,  XIX.  189. 

Potassium,  XIX.  588. 

Silicon,  V.  521. 

Silver  (see  Index  volume,  page  405). 

Sodium,  XX.  240. 

Sulphur,  XXII.  634. 

Tin,  XXIII.  400. 

Zinc,  XXIV.  784. 

Argon,  a  new  gaseous  constituent  in  the  atmosphere, 
sup.  227. 

A  complete  list  of  the  elements,  so  far  as  now  known, 
is  given  in  sup.  768.  The  discovery  of  several  new  ele- 
ments v>  described  in  sup.  771. 


362  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

A  FEW   ADDITIONAL  TOPICS. 

Atomic  theory,  V.  465. 

Molecular  weights,  V.  471. 

Chemical  notation,  V.  472. 

Organic  Chemistry,  V.  544 ;  sup.  775. 

Animal  Chemistry,  sup.  2785. 

Formulae  of  Organic  Compounds,  V.  547. 

Classification  of  Organic  Compounds,  V.  551 

Hydrocarbons,  V.  556. 

Haloid  ethers,  V.  565. 

Ethers,  V.  566. 

Aldehydes,  V.  567. 

Ketones,  V.  568. 

Organic  acids,  V.  569. 

Ethereal  salts,  V.  572. 

Organo-metallic  bodies,  V.  573. 

Amides,  V.  577. 

Unclassified  organic  compounds,  V.  578. 


THE   MINERALOGIST. 


CHAPTER  LIII. 

THE   MINERALOGIST. 

"  Stones  whose  rates  are  either  rich  or  poor, 
As  fancy  values  them."  — Measure  for  Measure. 

A  COMPLETE  description  of  mineral  species,  illustrated 
with  numerous  diagrams  and  cuts,  is  given,  XVI.  380-429. 
Very  many  of  the  minerals  so  described  are  no- 
Mineral  ticed  at  still  greater  length  in  special  articles. 
Species.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  most  important : 
Alabaster,  I.  439. 

Alum,  I.  643  ;   XVI.  402. 

Aluminum,  I.  647. 

Amber,  I.  659. 

Amethyst,  I.  736. 

Anthracite,  II.  106. 

Antimony,  II.  129. 

Arsenic,  II.  634. 

Asbestos,  II.  675. 

Asphaltum,  II.  715. 

Barytes,  III.  406. 

Beryl,  III.  613. 

Bismuth,  III.  790. 

Bitumen,  XVI.  428. 

Borax,  IV.  50. 

Calcite,  X.  228. 

Calc-spar,  IV.  653, 

Calomel,  IV.  711. 

Carbuncle,  V.  89. 

Carnelian,  I.  277. 

Chalcedony,  I.  277. 


364  GUIDE   TO   THE    BRITANNICA. 

Chalk,  V.  372. 

Cinnabar,  V.  785. 

Clays,  X.  237. 

Coals  (see  reference  given  in  The  Miner.) 

Cobalt,  VI.  81  ;  XX.  23. 

Copper  (see  references  given  in  The  Miner.) 

Copperas,  VI.  352. 

Diamond,  VII.  162;  diamond  mining,  XVI.  455;  in 
South  Africa,  V.  42  ;  in  Brazil,  IV.  224;  in  India,  Xll. 
766;  cutting  diamonds,  XIV.  298. 

Emerald,  VIII.  170. 

Emery,  VIII.  171. 

Feldspar,  X.  227. 

Flint,  IX.  325. 

Fuller's  earth,  IX.  816. 

Galena,  XIV.  375. 

Garnet,  VIII.  640. 

Gold  (see  references  in  The  Miner) 

Graphite,  XVI.  381. 

Gypsum,  XI.  351. 

Hornblende,  X.  228. 

Hornstone,  XVI.  389. 

Ice,  XII.  611. 

Iceland-spar,  IV.  653. 

Iron  (see  references  in  The  Miner.) 

Jasper,  XIII.  596. 

Jet,  XIII.  672. 

Kaolin,  XIV.  i,  90. 

Lead  (see  references  in  The  Miner.) 

Lignite,  VI.  46. 

Limestone,  X.  232. 

Loam,  XVI.  424. 

Magnesia,  XV.  218. 

Manganese  (red),  XVI.  398. 


THE   MINERALOGIST.  365 

Marble,  XV.  528. 

Marl,  IV.  281. 

Meerschaum,  XV.  825. 

Mercury,  XVI.  31  (see  Index  volume,  page  288). 

Meteoric  iron,  XIII.  285. 

Mica,  X.  228. 

Naphtha,  XVII.  174. 

Nickel,  XVII.  487. 

Opal,  XVII.  777. 

Petroleum,  XVIII.  712  ;  as  fuel,  IX.  809. 

Platinum,  XIX.  189. 

Pyrites,  XX.  128. 

Quartz,  XX.  160. 

Rock-salt,  X.  228  ;  XXI.  230. 

Ruby,  XXI.  47. 

Salt,  XXI.  228;  mines  in  Austria,  III.  120;  on  Caspian 
Sea,  V.  178;  production  in  the  United  States,  XXIII.  817. 

Saltpetre,  XXI.  235. 

Sapphire,  XXI.  302. 

Sappirite,  XVI.  409. 

Shale,  XVI.  424;  bituminous,  XVIII.  240. 

Silver  (see  references  in  The  Miner.) 

Slate,  XXII.  127  ;  quarries  of,  XVI.  454. 

Sulphur,  XXII.  634;  mines  in  Sicily,  XXII.  30  ;  in  For- 
mosa, V.  636. 

Talc,  X.  228. 

Tin  (see  references  in  The  Miner.) 

Topaz,  XXVIII.  446. 

Tourmaline,  X.  228. 

Umber,  XVI.  425. 

Zinc  (see  references  in  The  Miner.) 


366  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  LIV. 

THE   PREACHER   AND   THEOLOGIAN. 

"  I  preached  as  never  sure  to  preach  again, 
And  as  a  dying  man  to  dying  men." 

— Richard  Baxter,  1650. 

"The  altitude  of  literature  and  poetry  has  always  been  religion — and 
always  will  be."—  Walt  Whitman. 

THE  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  embracing  as  it  does  the 
whole  range  of  human  knowledge,  must  neces- 
Religious  sarily  devote  a  large  amount  of  attention  to 
Knowledge,  subjects  connected  with  the  religious  history 
and  religious  thought  of  the  world.  The  num- 
ber of  articles  which  it  contains  of  this  kind,  their  com- 
prehensiveness, and  the  breadth  of  scholarship  which  they 
display,  are  alike  amazing.  Few  private  theological  libra- 
ries contain  so  much  matter  of  a  quality  that  is  so  uni- 
formly excellent.  To  the  minister,  the  pastor,  the  church 
official,  and  the  theological  student,  the  Britannica  offers 
a  fund  of  information  and  a  wealth  of  knowledge  which 
can  be  derived  from  no  other  single  publication  in  the 
English  language.  It  is  not  the  intention  in  this  chapter 
to  locate  or  point  out  all  the  articles  that  relate  to  theo- 
logical or  religious  subjects.  To  do  so  would  oblige  us  to 
go  beyond  all  the  limitations  assigned  to  this  volume. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  name  a  few  of  the  most  important 
subjects,  as  the  reader,  when  once  fairly  introduced  into 
this  department  of  knowledge,  will  be  able  readily  to 
refer  to  others  of  a  similar  character. 


THE   PREACHER  AND  THEOLOGIAN.  367 

I.   RELIGIONS. 

The  special  article  on  the  religious  beliefs  and  modes  of 

divine  worship  peculiar  to  different  tribes,  na- 

Fiv  tions,  and  communities,  written  by    Professor 

Religions      ^.  ^'  Tiele,  of  the  University  of  Leyden,  XX. 

358-370,  will  be  an   excellent   introduction  to 

this  course  of  study.     It  may  be  followed  by  the  reading 

of  such  additional  articles  as  these  : 

1.  CHRISTIANITY,  V.  688-702.     A  comprehensive  sur- 
vey of  the  history  and  influence  of  Christianity.     By  Pro- 
fessor T.  M.  Lindsay,  of  Free  Church  College,  Glasgow. 

2.  JUDAISM.     See  the  two  articles,  Israel,  XIII.  369- 
431,  and  JEWS,  XIII.  679-687.     These  articles  are  chiefly 
historical,  the  first  by  Dr.  Julius  Wellhausen,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle ;  the  second  by  Israel  Davis,  of  London. 

Jews  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1757-1760. 

3.  BRAHMANISM,  IV.  201-211.    By  Dr.  Julius  Eggel- 
ing,  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

4.  BUDDHISM,  IV.  424-438.     By  Dr.  T.  W.  Rhys  Da- 
vids, of  London. 

5.  MOHAMMEDANISM,  XVI.  545-606.     A  very  compre- 
hensive article  in  three  parts  : 

Part  I.  Mohammed,  by  Professor  Wellhausen. 
Part  II.  The  Eastern  Caliphate,  by  Professor  Stanislas 
Guyard. 

Part  III.  The  Koran,  by  Professor  Noldeke. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  special  articles  on  all  other 

religious   beliefs   and   systems   that  have  ever 

Other          exerted  any  considerable  influence    upon   the 

Beliefs.         thought  of  mankind.     The    following   articles 

will  be  of  interest  to  many  readers : 
Druidism,  VII.  477. 
Zoroastrianism,  XXIV.  822. 


368  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 

For  an  account  of  the  religion  peculiar  to  any  given 
country,  see  the  article  devoted  to  that  country  ;  for  ex- 
ample : 

Religion  in  Mexico,  XVI.  211  a. 

Religion  of  Hottentots,  XII.  311  b. 

Religion  in  India,  XII.  782  a. 

Religion  in  Abyssinia,  I.  63. 

Religion  in  Africa,  I.  65. 

Religion  of  gypsies,  X.  616,  etc. 

II.  BELIEF   IN   GOD. 

Closely  allied  in  thought  to  the  articles  mentioned 
above  are  such  as  the  following  : 

THEISM,  XXIII.  234-249.  This  embraces  a  survey  of 
primeval  religious  ideas,  with  notices  of  polytheism,  mono- 
theism, trinitarianism,  unitarianism,  deism,  mysticism,  ag- 
nosticism, etc. 

Deism,  VII.  33. 

Theosophy,  XXIII.  278  ;  sup.  2893  ;  Madame  Blavatsky, 
sup.  495  ;  William  Q.  Judge,  sup.  1761. 

Kabbalah,  XIII.  810. 

Rationalism,  XX.  289. 

Agnosticism,  sup.  85. 

Idolatry,  XII.  698. 

Fetichism,  IX.  118. 

See  also  God,  in  Index  volume,  page  184. 

III.  DOCTRINE,  ETC. 

Read  the  special  article  on  THEOLOGY,  XXIII.  260- 
276  ;  also  the  following : 

APOLOGETICS,  II.  189;  sup.  1224.' 
Christian  Evidences  of  Christianity,  sup.  1224. 

Doctrine.  DOGMATICS,  VII.  332-342,  "  a  branch  of  theo- 

logical study  which  treats  of  the  doctrine  of 
Christianity." 


THE   PREACHER  AND  THEOLOGIAN.  369 

HERMENEUTICS,  XI.  741-749,  "which  treats  of  Scrip- 
ture interpretation." 

Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  sup.  1528. 

ESCHATOLOGY,  VIII.  534-538,  "  the  doctrine  of  the  last 
things." 

Immortality.     See  Butler,   IV.  584;   Plato,  XIX.    199, 
209;  Vedanta,  XXIV.  118. 

CREEDS,  VI.  558-565,  "  authorized  formularies  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine." 

To  these  longer  articles  many  others  might  be  added, 
such  as : 

The  Holy  Ghost,  sup.  1600. 

Predestination,  XIX.  668. 

Atonement,  sup.  282. 

Imputation,  sup.  1661. 

Justification,  sup.  1763. 

Inspiration,  XIII.  154. 

Sanctification,  XVIII.  425. 

Prophecy,  XIX.  814. 

Anthropomorphism,  II.  123. 

Transubstantiation,  VIII.  653;  sup.  2567. 

Perfectionism,  sup.  2348. 

Antichrist,  II.  124. 

Christian  Apocalyptic,  II.  179. 

Apostasy,  II.  189. 

Heresy,  XL  732. 

Arminianism,  sup.  236. 

Apostolic  Succession,  sup.  205. 

Indulgence,  XII.  846. 

Immaculate  Conception,  XII.  715. 

Consecration,  VI.  291. 

Beatification,  sup.  391. 

See,  also,  the    references   to    Christianity  and    Church 
history  below. 
24 


370  GUIDE  TO  THE   BRITANNICA. 

IV.    CHRISTIANITY. 

Christianity,  V.  688;  creeds  of,  VI.  558;  doctrines  of 
VII.  332  ;  ethics  of,  VIII.  588  ;  theology  of,  XXIII.  239. 

Christ,  V.  687. 

The  testimony  of  the  Gospels  to  Jesus  Christ,  XIII.  659. 

Christology,  sup.  799. 

The  CHURCH,  V.  758. 

Views  of  Christianity  by  famous  writers  and  philoso- 
phers : 

Origen's,  XVII.  841. 

Irenaeus's,  XIII.  274. 

Clement's,  V.  820. 

Lessing's,  XIV.  482. 

Locke's,  XIV.  756. 

Rousseau's,  XIII.  670. 

Voltaire's,  IX.  669. 

i.  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH,  sup.  2566-2573,  an  im- 
portant and  very  comprehensive  article  by  Cardinal 
Gibbons,  should  be  read  in  connection  with  the  general 
article  on  the  same  subject,  XX.  628-631,  by  P.  L. 
Connellan,  of  Rome.  See  also  PoPEDOM,  XIX.  487  -  5 10. 

This  latter  article  is  designed  to  give  the  main  outlines 
of  the  history  of  the  Papacy  as  an  institution. 

Christian  So- AHst  of   the  {&      iyen   ^    the    end      and 

cieties  and  .      .  11-,  r 

Churches  readers  wishing  to  extend  their  knowledge  ot 
this  subject  by  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
personal  history  of  the  pontiffs  may  do  so  by  referring  to 
the  special  articles  in  the  Britannica  relating  respectively 
to  the  different  popes.  The  method  of  electing  a  pope  is 
described  in  sup.  2568.  The  following  articles  may  also 
be  read  : 

Catholic,  V.  227.  (For  the  first  use  of  this  name,  see  V.  9.) 
Catholics  in  America,  sup.  2569. 


THE  PREACHER  AND  THEOLOGIAN.       3/1 

Titles  in  the  Catholic  Church,  sup.  2919. 
Archbishops,  II.  369. 
Bishops,  III.  788. 
Abbot,  I.  22. 
Acolyte,  I.  98. 
Celibacy,  V.  293. 
Propaganda,  XIX.  809. 
Ultramontism,  sup.  2977. 

History  of  Monasticism,  I.  14-21,  to  be  read  in  connec- 
tion with 

Monachism,  XVI.  698. 

Asceticism,  II.  676. 

Religious  Brotherhoods,  sup.  586. 

Franciscans,  IX.  698. 

Dominicans,  VII.  354;  XIII.  93. 

Benedictines,  III.  558  ;  VIII.  372;  sup.  417. 

Carthusians,  V.  163  ;  I.  20. 

Jesuits,  XIII.  645  ;  XVIII.  430  ;  sup.  1742. 

Passionists,  sup.  2307. 

Paulist  Fathers,  sup.  2326. 

Trappists,  XXIII.  522. 

Accemetae  (sleepless  monks),  I.  98. 

Sisters  of  Charity,  sup.  754. 

Old  Catholics,  XVII.  754. 

2.  GREEK  CHURCH,  XI.  154. 
Stundists  of  Russia,  sup.  2814  ;  XXI.  82. 

3.  ARMENIAN  CHURCH,  II.  548. 

4.  PROTESTANTISM,  XX.  319.     Of  the  sects  of  Protest- 
antism  a   very   large    number   are    noticed    in    separate 
articles  in  the  Britannica.     The    following  will    indicate 
the  scope  and  character  of  these  articles : 


372  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Adventists,  XVI.  320;  sup.  52. 

Baptists,  III.  353  ;  Freewill  Baptists,  IX.  762;  Baptists 
in  the  United  States,  sup.  346.  This  article  includes  brief 
accounts  of  all  the  different  bodies  of  Baptists  now  in  this 
country. 

Catholic  Apostolic,  V.  237. 

Christian  Brethren,  XIX.  238. 

Dissenters,  sup.  1053. 

Christian  Alliance,  sup.  797. 

Congregationalists,  VI.  268;  in  the  United  States,  sup. 
887. 

Episcopal:  Church  of  England,  VIII.  370;  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States,  VIII.  493. 

Disciples  of  Christ,  sup.  1052. 

Evangelical  Association,  VIII.  725  ;  sup.  1221. 

Free  Church  of  England,  sup.  1335. 

Friends,  sup.  1344  (see  Quakers),  XX.  147. 

Independents,  XII.  722. 

Lutherans,  XV.  84;  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1931. 

Mennonites,  XVI.  1 1  ;  sup.  2036. 

Methodists,  XVI.  185  ;  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2045. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  sup.  83. 

Moravian  Brethren,  XVI.  8n  ;.  sup.  2101. 

Mormons,  XVI.  825. 

Latter-day  Saints,  or  Mormons,  sup.  1837. 

New  Jerusalem  Church,  sup.  2177;  XXII.  759. 

Presbyterians,  XIX.  676;  sup.  2437;  Cumberland  Pres- 
byterians, sup.  963. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  sup.  2464. 

Reformed  Church,  XX.  339;  Alliance  of  Reformed 
Churches,  sup.  132;  Reformed  Church  in  America,  sup. 
2526. 

Salvation  Army,  sup.  2616. 

Spiritualists,  XXII.  404;  II.  207. 


THE  PREACHER  AND  THEOLOGIAN.       373 

United  Brethren,  XXIII.  726;  sup.  2982. 

Unitarians,  XXIII.  725  ;  sup.  2980. 

Universalists,  XXIII.  831  ;  sup.  3001. 

To  these  might  be  added  an  extensive  list,  embracing 
such  names  as  the  following  : 

Abecedarians,  sup.  24. 

Antinomians,  II.  129. 

Aquarians,  II.  217. 

Annihilationists,  VIII.  538. 

Annunciada,  sup.  191. 

Hussites,  XII.  407. 

Illuminati,  XII.  706. 

Latitudinarians,  sup.  1837. 

Christadelphians,  sup.  796. 

The  Arminian  Nunnery,  sup.  1259. 

Winebrennarians,  sup.  804. 

But  it  is  unnecessary  to  attempt  a  complete  list.  The 
reader  who  so  desires  will  now  be  able  to  continue  the  in- 
vestigation of  this  subject  without  further  assistance  from 
the  GUIDE. 

V.   CHURCH   HISTORY. 

As  an  introduction  to  another  valuable  course  of  read- 
ing, take  the  article  entitled  CHURCH  AND  CHURCH  HIS- 
TORY, V.  758. 

The  number  of  special  articles,  biographical  and  histori- 
cal, relating  to  the  history  of  the  Christian  church  may 
be  estimated  from  the  following  incomplete  list  of  sub- 
jects which  receive  treatment  in  the  first  volume  alone : 

Volume  i  : — Saint  Adalbert,  p.  134;  Adam  of  Bremen, 
p.  138;  Adiaphorists,  p.  153;  Adoption  Controversy,  p. 
163;  Popes  Adrian,  p.  165;  y£tius,  p.  356;  Archbishop 
Agelnoth,  p.  279;  Johannes  Agricola,  p.  290;  Bishop 
Aidan,  p.  424 ;  Aired,  p.  475  ;  St.  Alban,  p.  446 ;  Cardinal 


374  GUIDE  TO  THE   BRITANNICA. 

Albert,  p.  451;  Albigenses,  p.  454;  Bishop  Alcock,  p. 
469;  Alcuin,  p.  471;  Bishop  Aldred,  p.  475;  Cardinal 
Aleandro,  p.  476 ;  Alesius,  p.  478  ;  Popes  Alexander,  p. 
486;  Joseph  Alleine,  p.  581  ;  Felix  Amat,  p.  653  ;  Amal- 
ric  of  Bena,  p.  652  ;  Saint  Ambrose,  p.  662  ;  Nicolaus 
Arnsdorf,  p.  778  ;  Moses  Amyrant,  p.  782. 

Instead  of  continuing  this  list  so  as  to  cover  in  the  same 

way  the  remaining  twenty-three  volumes  of  the  Britannica, 

the  GUIDE  deems  it  sufficient  to  name  merely  a 

Select  List     few  of  the  most  important  subjects. 

ofTopics.         The  history  of  the  Christian  church  may  be 

said  to  begin  with  the  preaching  of  St.  Peter  on 

the  day  of  Pentecost.     See,  therefore,  St.    Peter,  XVIII. 

693;  Pentecost,  XVIII.  514;  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  1.123. 

After  these,  read  : 

Saint  Paul,  XVIII.  415. 

Saint  John,  XIII.  706. 

Saint  Andrew,  II.  20. 

Revelation,  XX.  506. 

Apollos,  II.  189. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  II.  195. 

Saint  Anthony,  II.  107. 

Saint  Augustine,  III.  75. 

Justin  Martyr,  XIII.  790. 

The  four  Saint  Gregories,  XL  775-781. 

Arius,  II.  537. 

Saint  Fulgentices,  sup.  1349. 

Saint  Athanasius,  I.  828. 

Basil  the  Great,  III.  412. 

Chrysostom,  V.  755. 

Eusebius,  VIII.  721. 

Irenaeus,  XIII.  273. 

Cyril  of  Alexandria,  VI.  751. 

Nestorius,  XVII.  355. 


THE  PREACHER  AND  THEOLOGIAN.  375 

Polycarp,  XIX.  414. 

Saint  Barbara,  sup.  350. 

Saint  Agnes,  sup.  86. 

Saint  Epiphanius,  XVIII.  482. 

Saint  Alban,  I.  446. 

Sylvester,  XXII.  74. 

Bede,  III.  480. 

Saint  Bridget,  IV.  342. 

Saint  Bernard,  III.  601. 

Crispin  and  Crispinian,  VI.  590. 

Saint  Boniface,  IV.  33. 

Lanfranc,  XIV.  282. 

Anselm,  II.  91. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  II.  625. 

Thomas  a  Kempis,  XIV.  316. 

Saint  Benedict,  III.  557. 

Saint  Dominic,  VII.  353. 

Saint  Francis,  IX.  692  ;  Franciscans,  IX.  698. 

The  Jesuits,  XIII.  645. 

History  of  Monasticism,  I.  14. 

Capuchins,  V.  79. 

Carthusians,  V.  163. 

Carmelites,  V.  1 16. 

Celestines,  V.  291. 

Flagellants,  IX-  280. 

Cloister,  VI.  35. 

Asceticism,  III.  676. 

Saint  Dunstan,  VII.  359. 

Manichaeism,  XVII.  124. 

The  Albigenses,  I.  454. 

The  Lollards,  XIV.  810. 

The  Waldenses,  XXIV.  322. 

The  Council  of  Basil,  III.  409. 

The  Inquisition,  XIII.  91. 


GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA, 

Francis  Xavier,  XXIV.  716. 

John  Wycliffe,  XXIV.  708. 

Zwingli,  XXIV.  832. 

Erasmus,  VIII.  512. 

Martin  Luther,  XV.  71. 

John  Huss,  XII.  404. 

John  Calvin,  IV.  714. 

The  Huguenots,  XII.  337. 

The  Reformation,  XX.  319. 

Council  of  Trent,  XXIII.  543. 

Thomas  Cranmer,  VI.  548. 

John  Knox,  XIV.  130. 

William  Laud,  XIV.  346. 

Puritanism  in  England,  VIII.  340. 

George  Fox,  IX.  500. 

John  Bunyan,  IV.  526. 

John  Wesley,  XXIV.  504;  VIII.  355. 

Emanuel  Swedenborg,  XXII.  758. 

Leo  XIII.,  sup.  1864. 

James  Freeman  Clark,  sup.  819. 

Alexander  Campbell,  sup.  667. 

Phillips  Brooks,  sup.  584. 

Henry  Ward  Beech er,  sup.  400. 

Lyman  Abbott,  sup.  15. 

F.  W.  Farrar,  sup.  1249. 

Charles  H.  Parkhurst,  sup.  2296. 

William  Booth,  sup.  522. 

Christian  Missions,  XVI.  511. 

Sunday-schools,  sup.  2823. 

Epworth  League,  sup.  1210. 

Christian  Endeavor,  Society  of,  sup.  797. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  sup.  3223. 

Young  Women's  Christian  Association,  sup.  3224. 


THE   PREACHER   AND   THEOLOGIAN.  3/7 

Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  sup.  3182. 
Society  for  the    Promotion    of   Christian    Knowledge, 
sup.  798. 

VI.    FORMS,  CEREMONIES,   AND   RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES. 

The  Seven  Sacraments : 
Baptism,  III.  348. 
Confirmation,  V.  258. 
Eucharist,  VIII.  650;  sup.  1619. 
Penance,  XVIII.  484. 
Extreme  Unction,  VIII.  813. 
Holy  Orders,  sup.  2567  ;  II.  90. 
Matrimony,  sup.  2567. 

Ecclesiastical  costume,  VI.  461. 
Ablution,  I.  50. 
Rituals,  sup.  2554. 
Mass,  sup.  2572. 
Apostles'  Creed,  II.  194. 
Apostles'  Canons,  II.  194. 
The  Litany,  XIV.  695. 
The  Catechism,  V.  219. 
Confession,  VI.  257. 
Anointing,  II.  90. 
Holy  water,  XII.  105. 
Adoration,  I.  164. 
Incense,  XII.  718. 
Rosary,  XX.  848. 
Breviary,  IV.  263. 
Missal,  XVI.  508. 
Absolution,  I.  58. 

Excommunication,  VIII.  798 ;  Bell,  Book,  and  Candle, 
sup.  410. 

Stigmatization,  XXII.  548. 


3/8  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Fasting,  IX.  44. 

Sacrifice,  XXI.  132. 

Pilgrimage,  XIX.  90. 

Love  Feasts,  XVI.  188;  V.  274. 

Vows,  XXIV.  300. 

Hymns,  XII.  577. 

Dies  Irae,  sup.  1046. 

Kyrie  Eleison !  sup.  1812. 

Peter's  Pence,  sup.  2357. 

VII.    HOLY   DAYS,    FEASTS,    ETC. 

Sunday,  XXII.  653. 
Christmas,  V.  704. 

Lent,  X.  446. 

F**sdts        Palm  Sunday,  XVIII.  198. 
Holy  Days     Passion  Week,  XVIII.  343. 

Good  Friday,  X.  774. 
Easter,  VII.  613. 

All  Saints'  Day,  I.  578  ;  sup.  132. 
All  Souls'  Day,  sup.  135. 
Atonement  Day,  VIII.  806. 
Candlemas,  IV.  804. 
Corpus  Christi,  VI.  436. 
Feast  of  the  Annunciation,  II.  90. 
Feast  of  the  Assumption,  II.  734. 
Epiphany,  VIII.  483. 

VIII.    CHURCH    GOVERNMENT,    ETC. 

Pope  (see  Index  volume,  page  353). 
Cardinal,  V.  96 ;  sup.  696. 
Conclave  of  Cardinals,  sup.  88 1. 
Roman  Congregations,  sup.  888. 
Patriarch,  III.  788. 


THE   PREACHER  AND  THEOLOGIAN.  379 


Bishop,  III.  787. 
Presbyter,  X.  675. 

Clergy,  V.  828. 
Officers  Dean^  vn     I3 

cir*.         Acolyte,  I.  98. 

Abbe,  I.  9. 

Abbess,  I.  9  ;  abbot,  I.  22. 
Abbreviators,  I.  29. 

Advocatus  diaboli  (devil's  advocate),  sup.  54. 
Catechumen,  V.  220. 
Canon,  V.  15. 

Defender  of  the  marriage  tie,  sup.  1013. 
Parson,  XVIII.  327. 
Vicar,  XVIII.  296. 
Curate,  VI.  709. 
Legate,  XIV.  412. 
Archbishop,  III.  369. 
Priest,  X.  724. 

Deacon,  VII.  I  ;  deaconess,  VII.  I. 
Archdeacon,  III.  370. 
Almoner,  I.  595. 

Nun,  XVI.  699  ;  monk,  XVI.  698. 
Neophyte,  XVII.  332. 
Canon  law,  V.  1-23. 
Apostolic  canons,  II.  194. 
The  Thirty-nine  Articles,  II.  653. 

IX.   THE   BIBLE. 

For  a  general  discussion  of  questions  relating  to  the 
Bible  and  its  circulation  to  the  year  1875^,  see  BIBLE,  III. 
634-650.  For  a  comprehensive  account  of  its  circulation 
since  1875,  see  sup.  442-456.  This  latter  article  contains 
specimen  extracts  from  Bibles  printed  in  242  languages 
and  dialects.  It  is  followed  by  a  list  of  the  Bible  Societies 


380  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

of  the  world,  sup.  456,  giving  the  number  of  Bibles  issued 
by  each  society  since  its  organization. 

Inspiration  of  the  Bible,  XIII.  154. 

Wycliffe's  Bible,  XXIV.  710. 

The  Douay  Bible,  sup.   1069. 

Tyndale's  Bible,  XXIII.  76. 

The  Geneva  Bible,  VIII.  387. 

The  Breeches  Bible,  VIII.  387. 

The  Septuagint,  XXI.  667. 

King  James's  Version,  VIII.   381. 

Bible  Societies,  III.  649. 

Bible  glosses,  X.  687. 

Spinoza  on  Biblical  Criticism,  XXII.  402. 

Higher  Criticism,  sup.  944. 

Origen  on  Biblical  Criticism,  XVII.  840;  Baur,  111.448  ; 
De  Wette,  VII.  144;  Morinus,  XVI.  824. 

Revision  of  the  Bible,  sup.  2539. 

See  the  chapter  in  this  GUIDE  entitled,  Readings  for 
Bible  Students. 

See  Theological  Education,  sup.  2889-2892. 


THE  PHILANTHROPIST   AND   REFORMER.  381 


CHAPTER  LV. 

THE   PHILANTHROPIST   AND    REFORMER. 

"  Love  all,  trust  a  few;  do  wrong  to  none." 

— A II '  s  Well  That  Ends  Well. 

PHILANTHROPY,  in  its  broadest  sense,  is  love  of  man- 
kind manifested  in  deeds  of  kindness  to  one's  fellows. 
While  the  ultimate  object  of  all  philanthropists 
Philan-  is  the  same — the  mitigation  of  misfortune  and 
thropy.  the  consequent  betterment  of  all  conditions  of 
life — the  methods  which  they  pursue  are  widely 
different,  and  the  immediate  ends  toward  which  they  aim, 
are  many  and  various.  Some  labor  in  missions,  believing 
that  in  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ  there  is  the  surest 
means  of  promoting  human  happiness.  Some  devote  their 
energies  to  measures  of  reform,  hoping  that  by  effecting 
certain  changes,  whether  in  the  political  or  the  social  world, 
mankind  may  be  elevated  to  a  higher  plain  of  existence. 
Some  have  been  fearless  antagonists  of  slavery  and  other 
forms  of  oppression,  and  their  voices  have  always  cham- 
pioned the  cause  of  the  weak,  the  downtrodden,  and  the 
poor.  Some  labor  in  behalf  of  prison  reform,  and  strive 
to  bring  about  better  and  more  humane  methods  of  dealing 
with  criminals.  Some  are  active  in  deeds  of  charity  and 
in  the  promotion  of  means  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
poor.  And  so  each  philanthropist  works  in  his  own  field, 
but  all  are  actuated  by  the  same  impulse — the  impulse  of 
sympathy  and  love,  the  impulse  to  do  good  to  suffering 
humanity.  To  all  who  are  interested  either  directly  or 


382  GUIDE  TO   THE  BRITANNICA. 

indirectly  in  any  form  of  philanthropical  effort,  the  Ency- 
clopedia Britannica  offers  a  mine  of  valuable  information. 
The  following  lists  of  references,  although  by  no  means  ex- 
haustive, will  be  of  assistance  to  every  one  who  seeks  to 
know  more  about  the  active  benevolences  of  the  world. 

For  a  comparison  between  Pagan  and  Christian  philan- 
thropy, see  VIII.  590. 

I.    MISSIONS   AND   MISSIONARIES. 

List  of  missionary  societies,  XVI.  515. 

Christian  missions,  XVI.  511. 

Missions  in  China,  XIX.  810;  XVI.  517.. 

Missions  in  India,  XIX.  81  i  ;  XXIV.  716. 

Missions  in  Japan,  XVI.  517;  XIII.  652. 

Roman  Catholic  propaganda,  XIX.  809. 
Mission-  The   Jesuit  system   of  missions,    XIII.  651, 

aries.          654;  XX.  536;  in  North  America,  sup.  1742. 
Baptist  missions,  III.  356. 

Methodist  missions,  XVI.  517. 

Moravian  missions,  XVI.  811  ;  XVI.  516. 

The  McAll  mission  in  France,  sup.  1940. 

Francis  Xavier,  the  Apostle  of  the  Indies,  XXIV.  716. 

John  Eliot,  the  Apostle  of  the  Indians,  VIII.  136  ;  XVI. 
514;  XVII.  243. 

Robert  Morrison,  missionary  to  China,  XVI.  846. 

William  Carey,  the  father  of  Protestant  missions,  V.  101. 

Adoniram  Judson,  missionary  to  India,  XIII.  766. 

Father  Jogues,  Jesuit  missionary  among  the  Mohawks, 
sup.  1745. 

John  Williams,  missionary,  XXIV.  586. 

Henry  Martyn,  missionary  to  Persia,  XV.  586;  XVIII. 
649. 

Thomas  Gage,  first  missionary  to  Mexico,  sup.  1356. 

Robert  Moffat,  African  missionary,  XVI.  543. 


THE   PHILANTHROPIST   AND  REFORMER.  383 

David  Livingstone,  XIV.  720;  I.  247. 
William  Goodell,  missionary  in  Turkey,  sup.  1423. 
Stephen  Grellet,  French  Quaker  missionary,  sup.    1467. 
Robert  W.  McAll,  founder  of  the  McAll  missions,  sup. 
1940. 
Samuel  Marsden,  the  Apostle  of  New  Zealand,  XVII. 

471. 

William  A.  P.    Martin,  president   of  Tungwen  College, 
Peking,  sup.  2004. 

II.    FRIENDS   OF   HUMANITY. 

Thomas  Joseph   Barnardo,  "  father    of    the    don't    live 
anywheres,"  sup.  357. 

Clara  Barton,  founder  of  the  Red  Cross  So- 
Philanthro-    ciety,  sup.  367. 

pists.  Charles  Loring  Brace,  sup.  541. 

Baroness  Burdett-Coutts,  sup.  624. 

Mary  Carpenter,  sup.  706. 

George  W.  Childs,  sup.  789. 

Peter  Cooper,  sup.  910. 

Elizabeth  Fry,  English  Quakeress,  IX.  804. 

Edward  Denison,  originator  of  "university  settlements," 
sup.  1026. 

Sarah  Platt  Doremus,  sup.  1068. 

Henry  Towle  Durant,  founder   of  Wellesley  College, 
sup.  1096. 

Abigail  Hopper  Gibbons,  sup.  1393. 

Stephen  Girard,  founder  of  Girard  College,  X.  621  ;  sup. 
1401. 

Baron   Hirsch,    the  Jewish    philanthropist,   sup.    1588; 
Philanthropies  of  American  Jews,  sup.  1760. 

Johns  Hopkins,  sup.  1612. 

Dr.  Samuel  G.  Howe,  sup.  1624. 

James  Lenox,  founder  of  Lenox  Library,  sup.  1864. 


384  GUIDE   TO   THE    BRITANNICA. 

James  Lick,  founder  of  Lick  Observatory,  sup.  1878. 

Sir  Josiah  Mason,  founder  of  almshouses  and  orphan 
ages,  sup.  2009. 

Sir  Moses  Montefiore,  sup.  2096. 

Geo.  Miiller,  founder  of  orphans'  homes,  England,  sup. 
2124. 

Florence  Nightingale,  sup.  2211. 

George  Peabody  XVII.  442;  sup.  2329. 

Samuel  Plimsoll,  "the  sailor's  friend,"  sup.  2401. 

Enoch  Pratt,  founder  of  Pratt  Library,  sup.  2436. 

Charles  Pratt,  founder  of  Pratt  Institute,  sup.  2435. 

Matthew  Vassar,  philanthropist  and  founder  of  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  sup.  3025. 

George  Williams,  founder  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  sup.  3157. 

Sisters  of  Mercy,  sup.  2039. 

Sisters  of  Charity,  XVI.  713. 

John  Howard,  the  father  of  prison  reform,  XII.  309. 

Elizabeth  Fry,  IX.  804. 

Prisoners'          Theodore   Fliedner,   German   philanthropist, 
Friends.         IX.  307. 

Enoch  Cobb  Wines,  founder  of  the  National 
Prison  Association,  sup.  3168. 

The  Prison  Discipline  Society,  XIX.  749. 

The  Howard  Association,  sup.  1623. 

The  following  references  may  be  found  interesting  and 
valuable  in  connection  with  any  study  of  human  benevo- 
lence : 

The  Sanitary  Commission,  sup.  2624. 

Woman's  Relief  Corps,  sup.  3183. 

Red  Cross  Society,  sup.  2521. 

The  education  of  defective,  dependent,  and  criminal 
classes,  sup.  2658. 

Reformatories,  sup.  2525. 


THE   PHILANTHROPIST  AND   REFORMER.  385 

University  settlements,  sup.  3005. 

Charity  organizations,  sup.  751. 

Law  and  Order  societies,  sup.  1844. 

Societies  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children, 
sup.  788. 

Almshouses,  sup.  138  ;  XIX.  465. 

Almsgiving  in  relation  to  Poor-laws,  XIX.  463. 

The  Monty  on  Prizes  (rewards  for  signal  instances  of 
philanthropy),  sup.  2099. 

Poor-laws,  XIX.  462  ;  sup.  2417. 

English  Poor-houses,  XIX.  468. 

Nursing,  sup.  2231. 

Hospitals,  XII.  301. 

Bellevue  Hospital,  sup.  41 1. 

Guy's  Hospital,  sup.  1499. 

Foundling  hospitals,  IX.  481. 

Ambulance  associations,  sup.  151. 

Hospital  ambulances,  I.  665. 

Tenement  life,  sup.  2873. 

III.    ANTI-SLAVERY    LEADERS. 

Abolitionists,  XXII.  141  ;  sup.  28. 

Abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United  States,  XXIII.  752, 
763,  767,  78i. 

Abolition  of  slavery  in  England,  VIII.  365! 
Clarkson  on  slavery,  V.  813. 

The  Quakers'  opposition  to  slavery,  XVIII.  492. 
John  Woolman,  sup.  3191. 

President  Jefferson's  opposition  to  slavery,  XIII.  615. 
Emancipation  in  the  United  States,  XXIII.  777. 
William  Wilberforce,  XXIV.  565. 
William  Forster,  sup.  1313. 

William  Lloyd  Garrison,  X.  85  ;  XVII.  432  ;  XXII.  145. 
Joshua  R.  Giddings,  sup.  1395. 
25 


386  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Wendell  Phillips,  I.  723  ;  sup.  2366. 

Samuel  May,  sup.  2020. 

Elijah  P.  Lovejoy,  XXII.  142  ;  sup.  1922. 

Owen  Lovejoy,  sup.  1922. 

Benjamin  Lundy,  sup.  1930. 

James  G.  Birney,  sup.  476. 

Elizur  Wright,  sup.  3206. 

Anna  Dickinson,  sup.  1043. 

Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  sup.  2797. 

John  Brown,  IV.  365  ;  XI.  490. 

Henry  B.  Stanton,  sup.  2779. 

John  Greenleaf  Whittier,  I.  734. 

John  C.  Fremont,  sup.  1339. 

Abraham  Lincoln,  XIV.  658. 

Frederick  Douglass,  sup.  1071. 

See,  also,  the  following  articles  :  History  of  Slavery, 
XXII.  129;  Ancient  Slavery,  XIX.  348;  the  Slave-trad  , 
XXII.  137;  British  and  Foreign  Anti-Slavery  Society, 
sup.  576;  Freedmen's  Bureau,  sup.  1336. 

IV.    REFORMS   AND    REFORMERS. 

i.  THE  WOMAN  SUFFRAGE  MOVEMENT. 

The  first  convention  in  the  United  States  to  advocate 
Woman's  suffrage  was  held  at  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.,  in 
1848.  Four  women  were  present. 

Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton,  sup.  2778. 

Lucretia  Mott,  sup.  2118. 

Lucy  Stone,  sup.  2793. 

Susan  B.  Anthony,  sup.  195. 

Mary  A.  Livermdre,  sup.  1898. 

Antoinette  Brown  Blackwell,  sup.  488. 

Amelia  Bloomer,  inventor  of  the  "  Bloomer  costume," 
sup.  502. 

Emily  Faithfull,  sup.  1240. 


THE   PHILANTHROPIST   AND    REFORMER.  387 

Millicent  Garrett  Fawcett,  sup.  1251. 

Ellen  H.  Foster,  sup.  1318. 

May  Wright  Sewall,  sup.  2694. 

Women's  clubs,  sup.  838. 

Education  and  enfranchisement  of  women,  sup.  3180. 

2.  THE  TEMPERANCE  MOVEMENT. 
Liquor  laws,  XIV.  688;  sup.  1892. 
Temperance  legislation,  XIV.  688. 
Prohibition  laws,  sup.  1892. 
Option  laws,  sup.  1893. 

South  Carolina  dispensary  system,  sup.  1894. 

The  Gothenburg  system,  sup.  1895. 

Raines  liquor  law,  sup.  1893. 

The  Prohibition  Party,  sup.  2453. 

Temperance  societies,  XXIII.  158. 

Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  sup.  3182. 

Temperance  societies  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1892. 

Father  Mathew  societies,  XV.  631. 

Good  Templars,  XXIII.  159;  sup.  1892. 

John  B.  Gough,  sup.  1431. 

Frances  E.  Willard,  sup.  3155. 

3.  SOCIAL  REFORMERS. 

Felix  Adler,  founder  of  the  Society  for  Ethical  Culture, 
sup.  49  ;  sup.  1218. 

Charles  Bradlaugh,  English  agitator  and  social  reformer, 
sup.  544. 

Anthony  Comstock,  champion  of  social  purity,  sup.  879. 

Elbridge  T.  Gerry,  president  of  the  Society  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Cruelty  to  Children,  sup.  1389. 

Society  for  Ethical  Culture,  sup.  1218. 


388  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

CHAPTER  LVI. 

THE   PUBLIC   SPEAKER. 

"  Mend  your  speech  a  little, 
Lest  it  may  mar  your  fortunes." — King  Lear. 

HE  who  would  excel  as  a  public  speaker  must  in  the 
first  place  possess  a  thorough  mastery  of  words.  He 
must  be  able  to  express  his  thoughts  in  a  manner  which 
is,  at  the  same  time,  pleasing,  forcible,  and  convincing. 
He  must  have  a  minute  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of 
everything  pertaining  to  the  subject  which  he  undertakes 
to  discuss ;  and  he  must  understand  the  secret  influences 
and  methods  by  which  the  minds  of  his  hearers  may  be 
moved  and  their  actions  determined.  A  mastery  of 
words  and  of  correct  and  elegant  language  may  be  ac- 
quired by  the  study  of  rhetoric  and  its  kindred  branches 
(see  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Writer,  in  this  GUIDE).  A 
knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  discussed  must  be  obtained 
by  careful  investigation,  by  personal  experience,  and  by 
the  study  of  books.  One's  understanding  of  the  human 
mind  and  its  motives  may  be  improved  by  the  study  of 
philosophy,  and  especially  that  division  of  the  science 
which  is  usually  called  psychology  (see  the  references  in 
the  chapter  entitled,  The  Teacher,  in  this  GUIDE). 

Very  much   may  be  learned  by  studying  the  methods 

of  famous  orators  of  former  times.     Would  you 

Greek  and     j<now  the  methods  by  which  Demosthenes  made 

Oratory.       himself   the    greatest    orator   of  all   time,   and 

would  you  understand  something  of  the  distinc- 
tive   qualities   of   his  oratory  ?     Read    the  article  in  the 


THE   PUBLIC   SPEAKER.  389 

Britannica,  VII.  72  ;  then  read  of  the  characteristics  of 
Greek  oratory  in  general,  XL  142.  Read  of  Antiphon,  the 
most  ancient  of  Greek  orators,  II.  134  a;  of  Isaeus,  XIII. 
376;  of  Hyperides,  XII.  596  b  ;  of  Lysias,  XV.  118;  of 
Isocrates,  XIII.  388  ;  and  of  Andocides,  II.  18. 

Then  see  what  is  said  about  Roman  oratory,  XX.  719. 
Read  of  Cicero,  V.  770,  and  XX.  514  ;  of  Hortensius,  XII. 
210;  of  Marcus  Antonius,  II.  140;  of  Domitius  Afer,  I. 
225  ;  of  Julius  Caesar,  IV.  633  and  XX.  720. 

Then  coming  down  to  the  oratory  of  modern  times, 
read  of  Lord  Chatham,  V.  440;  of  Burke,  IV.  544  ;  of 
Fox,  IX.  500;  of  the  younger  Pitt,  XIX.  134; 
British  of  Grattan,  XL  63  ;  of  Brougham,  IV.  374;  of 
Oratory.  Lord  Derby,  VII.  1 12  ;  of  Robert  Hall,  XL  392. 
Finally,  arriving  at  the  study  of  our  own 
American  orators,  read  I.  721  b',  and  I.  722  b".  Then 
turn  to  the  article  on  Patrick  Henry,  XL  676;  and  after- 
ward to  those  on  Fisher  Ames,  I.  735  ;  Daniel  Webster, 
XXIV.  471  ;  Henry  Clay,  V.  817 ;  John  C.  Cal- 
American  houn,  IV.  683  ;  Edward  Everett,  VIII.  736. 
Oratory.  The  rules  that  govern  argumentative  bodies 

should  be  thoroughly  understood  by  every 
public  speaker.  Hence  refer  to 

Parliamentary  law,  sup.  2300. 

Parliamentary  procedure,  XVIII.  311. 

Quorum,  sup.  2486. 

Once  started  in  this  course  of  reading,  you  will  be  sur- 
prised at  the  large  number  of  additional  subjects  which 
will  suggest  themselves  ;  and  if  you  are  actually  in  earnest, 
you  will  need  no  guide  to  point  out  their  whereabouts  in 
the  Britannica.  You  will  be  able  to  depend  upon  and 
help  yourself. 

As  an  example  of  the  manner  in  which  a  single  subject 
may  be  studied  with  a  view  to  its  discussion  in  public,  let 


390  GUIDE   TO    THE    BRITANNICA. 

us  suppose  that  you  are  preparing  a  lecture  on  temperance. 

What  help  can  \hz  Encyclopedia  Britannica  give 

you  ?     Let  us  see.     That  the  wisest  of  ancient 

lecture"0*  Philosophers  advocated  temperance,  see  XXII. 

237,  and  II.  677;  and  that  they  declared    it  to 

be  one  of  the  cardinal  virtues,  see  VIII.  580. 

Read  of  Bacchus,  VII.  248,  and  XVII.  839. 

Then,  coming  to  later  times,  study  the  valuable  article 
on  DRUNKENNESS,  VII.  481  ;  also  Liquor  Laws,  XIV.  688 
and  sup.  1892  ;  Temperance  societies,  XXIII.  158  ;  Good 
Templars,  XXIII.  159. 

Prisons,  XIX.  747. 

Poor-houses,  XIX.  468. 

Other  articles  and  sections  which  may  be  read  at  pleas- 
ure are : 

John  B.  Gough,  sup.  1431. 

Prohibition  laws,  sup.  1892. 

Option  laws,  sup.  1893. 

South  Carolina  dispensary  system,  sup.  1894. 

The  Gothenburg  dispensary  plan,  sup.  1895. 

Raines  liquor  law,  sup.  1893. 

Prohibition  Party,  sup.  2453. 

Father  Mathew  societies,  XV.  631. 

Alcoholic  beverages,  sup.  117. 

Distillation  of  spirits,  VII.  264  a. 

BREWING,  IV.  294;  fermentation,  XXIV.  602. 

Brewing  in  the  United  States,  sup.  560. 

Brandy,  IV.  216. 

Whisky,  XXIV.  542. 

Effects  of  whisky,  XVIII.  407. 

WINE,  XXIV.  601. 

Ale,  I.  476. 

Absinthe,  I.  57. 

Arrack,  II.  628. 


THE   PUBLIC  SPEAKER.  39! 

Gin,  X.  602. 

Liqueurs,  XIV.  686. 

Perry,  XIV.  557, 

and  in  like  manner,  through  the  entire  list  of  intoxicating 
beverages.     To  these  may  be  added  such  articles  as 

The  Keeley  Gold-cure,  sup.  1775. 

Delirium  tremens,  VII.  50. 

Insanity,  XIII.  95  ;  in  relation  to  crime,  VI.  584. 

Heredity,  VIII.  608  ;  XIII.  96,  and  XI.  837. 

The  list  of  books  and  other  publications  which  advocate 
the  cause  of  temperance,  XXIII.  160,  will  be  found  of 
much  value  in  directing  you  to  further  research. 

So  much  for  the  lecturer  on  temperance.     The  political 
speaker  will  find  a  selection  of  references  for  his  special 
use  in  our  chapter  entitled,   The  American  Citi- 
Other          zen  ;  the  pulpit   orator  will   find  an  extensive 
Speakers.       array   of    references    in    the    chapter    for    The 
Preacher  and  Theologian  ;  and,  generally  speak- 
ing, the  various  subjects  adapted  to  public  presentation 
and   discussion    receive    due  notice   in  this   GUIDE,  each 
under  its  especial  heading.     Hence  it  is  unnecessary  to 
multiply  examples  here. 

The  would-be  orator,  however,  no  matter  what  may  be 
his  theme,  is  recommended  to  follow  out  the  course  of 
reading  suggested  in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Writer. 


3Q2  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  LVII. 

THE   BOOKMAN. 

"  Come,  and  take  choice  of  all  my  library." 

—  Titus  Andronicus. 

"  We  turned  o'er  many  books  together." 

— Mer.  of  Venice. 

To  the  lover  of  books  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  is 
itself  a  great  and  inestimable  treasure,  the  companion  of 
leisure  hours,  the  helper  in  time  of  need,  the  one  indis- 
pensable portion  of  his  library.  No  other  single 
The  Book  collection  of  volumes  in  the  world  furnishes  so 
Lover.  complete  an  equipment  for  all  the  business  of 
life  Without  the  Britannica  no  scholar's  libra- 
ry is  complete  ;  without  it  no  bookman's  house  can  be  fully 
furnished.  It  is  not  only  in  itself  a  book  to  be  consulted 
and  admired  and  cherished,  but  it  is  rich  in  information 
concerning  other  books  that  deserve  to  be  admired  and 
cherished.  It  is  par  excellence  the  bookman's  book  about 
books. 

Would  you  like  to  learn  something  about  the  greatest 
books  that  the  world  has  ever  produced — something  about 
the  character  of  their  contents  ; — something  about  their 
origin  ? 

The  following  list  of  references  will  help  you  to  find  the 
information  you  desire  : 

FIFTY   GREAT   BOOKS. 

The  Bible,  III.  634;  sup.  442. 

The  Vedas,  II.  698  ;  Rig- Veda,  XII.  780. 

The  Koran,  XVI.  597. 


THE   BOOKMAN.  393 

Mahabharata,  XXI.  281. 
Ramayana,  XXI.  280. 
Shah-Nameh,  XVIII.  656;  IX.  225. 
Zend  Avesta,  XXIV.  775. 

v  Homer's  Iliad,  XII.  117. 
•  Homer's  Odyssey,  XII.  119. 

Aristotle's  Ethics  and  Politics,  I.  215;  XIX.  349. 

Demosthenes  on  the  Crown,  VII.  71. 

y^schylus's  Tragedies,  I.  209. 

Sophocles's  (Edipus,  XXII.  272. 

Euripides's  Medea,  VIII.  675. 

Aristophanes'  the  Knights,  II.  508. 
4  Herodotus,  XI.  756. 
<  Xenophon's  Anabasis,  I.  787. 
v  Cicero's  Orations,  XX.  514;  V.  770. 
,  Virgil's  ^neid,  XXIV.  253. 

Plutarch's  Lives,  XIX.  232  ;  XVII.  334. 

Malory's  Morte  d'Arthur  XV.  337;  X.  173. 

The  Eddas,  VII.  649  ;  XXII.  201. 

Nibelungen  Lied,  XVII.  474. 

Gesta  Romanorum,  X.  555. 

Arabian  Nights,  XXIII.  316. 

Lucian's  "  True  History,"  XV.  43. 

Dante's  Divina  Commedia,  VI.  815. 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  XXII.  394. 
Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso,  II.  503. 
Shakespeare's  Tragedies,  VII.  430. 
„  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  XVI.  336-339. 
Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress,  IV.  529. 

Locke  On  the  Human  Understanding,  VIII.  423. 
Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  XIX.  366. 


394  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman   Empire,  X. 
578. 

Mill's  Logic,  XVI.  312. 
Darwin's  Origin  of  Species,  XXIV.  77. 
Boswell's  Life  of  Dr.  Johnson,  IV.  77. 

Don  Quixote,  V.  352. 

Gil  Bias,  XIV.  472. 
'  Robinson  Crusoe,  VII.  28. 
v  Gulliver's  Travels,  XXII.  766. 
'  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  X.  672. 

Voltaire's  Zadig,  XXIV.  285. 
J  Goethe's  Faust,  X.  539. 

The  Waverley  Novels,  VIII.  434. 
^Victor  Hugo's  Les  Miserabiles,  sup.  1629. 
'Thackeray's  Vanity  Fair,  XXIII.  215. 
^Dickens's  David  Copperfield,  VII.  177. 
lGeorge  Eliot's  Romola,  sup.  951. 

St.  Augustine's  Confessions,  III.  75  ;  VIII.  592  ;  I.  216. 

Thomas  a  Kempis's  Imitation  of  Christ,  XIV.  32. 

Pascal's  Pensees,  XVIII.  335. 

Keble's  Christian  Year,  XIV.  26. 

Jeremy  Taylor's  Holy  Living  and  Holy  Dying,  XXIII. 
93;  VIII.  421. 

Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  XII.  151. 

Bacon's  Essays  and  Novum  Organum,  III.  210. 

Lewes's  History  of  Philosophy,  XIV.  491  ;  VIII.  765. 

Addison's  The  Spectator,  I.  148  ;  VIII.  427.  , 

Macaulay's  Essays,  XV.  125. 
J  Emerson's  Essays,  sup.  1135. 

Carlyle's  French  Revolution,  sup.  701. 

We  have  named  more  than   fifty.     The  list  might  be 
greatly  extended,  but  it  is  unnecessary. 


THE    BOOKMAN.  395 

SOME   BOOKISH   SUBJECTS. 

Album,  I.  456. 

Aldine — Aldus  Manutius,  XV.  512. 

Almanacs,  I.  590. 

Ancient  forms  of  books,  XVIII.  144. 

Anonymous,  III.  657. 

Alexandrian  MS.,  I.  496. 

Bibliography,  II.  658;  III.  654,  655. 

Bibliomania,  III.  655  ;  sup.  457. 

Bindings,  IV.  41  ;  XIV.  538  ;  the  "  Arminian  Nunnery," 
sup.  1259. 

Block-books,  III.  652  ;  XXIII.  683. 

Black-letter,  XXIII.  686,  694. 

Books,  IV.  37;  III.65I. 

Book-cases,  XIV.  536. 

Book-house,  XIII.  152. 

Book-plates,  sup.  519. 

Book-scorpion,  sup.  520. 

Books  for  the  Blind,  sup.  496. 

Books  in  the  British  Museum,  sup.  577. 

Bowdlerizing,  sup.  536. 

Broadsides,  XVIII.  204. 

Catalogues,  XIV.  537,  539. 

Copyright,  XIV.  541.  (See  chapter  entitled,  The  Printer 
and  Publisher?) 

Censorship  of  books,  III.  639,  658. 

Chap-books,  XVIII.  204. 

Classification  of  books,  III.  661. 

Cleaning  of  books,  III.  821. 

Condemned  and  prohibited  books,  III.  658. 

De  Morgan's  Bibliography,  VII.  67. 

Dibdin,  VII.  172. 

Dictionaries,  VII.  179-193;  sup.  1044. 


396  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Ducykinck's  Cyclopaedia  of  Literature,  sup.  1099. 

Egyptian  books,  XIV.  510. 

Folk-books,  XVIII.  204. 

Grolier,  IV.  41  ;  sup.   1473. 

Grub  Street,  sup.  1475. 

Harleiian  Collection,  sup.  1527. 

Illuminated  manuscripts,  XII.  707  ;  XVI.  437. 

Incunabula,  III.  653. 

Indexes,  XII.  729. 

Index  Expurgatorius,  XII.  730  ;  XIX.  714. 

Macaronics,  IX.  355. 

Magliabechi,  XV.  217;  XIV.  530. 

Manuscripts,  VII.  253  ;  XVIII.  144;  XXIII.  682. 

Pamphlets,  XVIII.  204;    XVII.  413. 

Prohibited  books.  III.  658  ;  XII,  730. 

Pseudonyms,  III.  657. 

Rare  and  curious  books,  III.  654. 

Xylographic  books,  XXIII.  682. 

LIBRARIES. 

Libraries  (general  article),  XIV.  509-551. 

Libraries  of  the  United  States,  XIV.  534;  sup.  1873. 

Library  Management,  XIV.  536. 

Library  Catalogues,  XIV.  539. 

Library  of  Congress,  sup.  1874,  3139;  XIV.  535. 

State  Libraries,  XIV.  535. 

The  Advocates'  Library,  sup.  53. 

Astor  Library,  sup.  272. 

Tilden  Library,  sup.  2914. 

Boston  Public  Library,  sup.  527. 

Libraries  in  Chicago,  sup.  783. 

Libraries  in  Philadelphia,  sup.  2364. 

Lenox  Library,  sup.  1864. 

Pratt  Library,  Baltimore,  sup.  2436. 


THE   BOOKMAN.  397 


National  Library,  sup.  3139. 

Assyrian  libraries,  III.  191. 

Egyptian  libraries,  XIV.  510. 

Chinese  libraries,  XIV.  534,  549. 

Arabian  libraries,  XIV.  514. 

Library  of  the  British  Museum,  XIV.  514. 

Monastic  libraries,  XIV.  513,  527. 

Bodleian  Library,  XIV.  519. 

Bibliotheque  Nationale  de  Paris,  XIV.  524. 

Biblioteca  Vaticana,  XIV.  529. 

LIBRARIANS. 

Magliabechi,  XV.  217. 

Richard  de  Bury,  XIV.  514. 

Melvil  Dewey,  sup.  1038. 

W.  F.  Poole,  XIV.  540  ;  sup.  2417. 

A.  R.  Spofford,  sup.  1874,  2769. 


398  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  LVIII. 

THE   TEACHER. 

"  The  true  university  of  our  day  is  a  collection  of  books." 

—  Thomas  Carlyle. 

VALUABLE  as  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  is  to  persons 

of  all  callings  and  professions,   there  is  no  one  who  can 

derive  greater  benefit  from  it  than  the  teacher.     To   the 

man  or  woman  actively  engaged  in  education,  its  worth  is 

beyond  all  estimation.    It  is  an  exhaustless  mine 

The          of  knowledge,  offering  information    on    every 

Teachers'        .  .      ,  ,  i  .  T^   •  11--          r  • 

Book  imaginable  subject.  It  is  an  obliging  friend, 
answering  the  thousands  of  perplexing  ques- 
tions that  are  daily  and  unexpectedly  presented,  and  never 
making  a  mistake.  It  is  the  teacher's  vade  mecum,  the  in- 
dispensable companion  to  which  he  turns  for  help  and 
guidance  in  every  time  of  need.  If  one  were  asked  to 
point  out  the  articles  of  greatest  value  to  the  educator,  he 
could  not  answer;  he  could  only  say,  "All  are  valuable." 
To  the  teacher  of  sciences,  the  articles  on  scientific  sub- 
jects will  be  referred  to  most  frequently  (see  the  references 
on  pages  90-129  of  this  volume).  The  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics will  derive  aid  from  the  numerous  chapters  and 
treatises  on  mathematical  subjects  (see  page  130).  And 
so,  whether  you  are  a  teacher  of  geography,  or  of  philoso- 
phy, or  of  literature,  or  of  history,  or  of  music,  or  of  art, 
or  of  any  other  department  of  human  knowledge,  you  will 
find  the  Britannica  always  ready  to  supplement  your  in- 
struction, and  to  aid  you  in  the  work  which  you  have  in 
hand. 


THE   TEACHER.  399 

This  is  the  day  of  educated  teachers — of  teachers  who 
are  learned  not  only  in  the  branches  which  they  teach  at 
school,  but  in  the  principles  which  underlie  the 
practice  of  their  calling.     Pedagogy  has  become 
agogy.     ^  Distinct  science.     School-teaching  is  no  longer 
a  haphazard  business,  but  it  is  a  profession  con- 
ducted on  lines  as  exact  as  those  which  determine  the 
practice  of  law  or  of  medicine  or  of  theology.    The  teacher 
who  neglects  or  refuses  to  recognize  this  fact  is  already  on 
the  road  to  failure,  and  his  successor  is  knocking  at  the 
door. 

In  the  present  chapter  it  is  proposed  to  mark  out  two  or 
three  brief  courses  of  professional  reading  for  teachers — 
courses  which  may  be  pursued  at  odd  moments  at  home, 
and  which  will  in  no  small  measure  take  the  place  of  simi- 
lar courses  of  study  in  teachers'  institutes  and  normal  col- 
leges. The  teacher  who  follows  them  out  faithfully  will 
not  only  be  better  equipped  for  examinations,  but  will  be 
possessed  of  a  broader  and  deeper  knowledge  of  his  pro- 
fession, and  consequently  much  better  prepared  to  grap- 
ple with  its  difficulties  and  avoid  its  perplexities. 

I.    HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION. 

Let  us  take  as  the  starting  point  and  basis  of  this 
course  of  reading  the  article  EDUCATION,  in  the  seventh 
volume  of  the  Britannica.  This  article,  which  covers  ten 
double -column  pages  (671-681),  is  the  work  of  Oscar 
Browning,  of  Cambridge  University,  well  known  in  this 
country  for  his  work  on  Educational  The6ries.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  article  is  mainly  to  outline  the  history  of  edu- 
cational theories  in  the  chief  crises  of  their  development, 
and  no  attempt  is  made  to  discuss  the  science  of  teaching, 
or  to  describe  the  practical  working  of  any  particular 


4OO  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

method  or  theory.     Let  us,  then,  study  the  history  of  edu- 
cation from  the  following  references  : 

Old  Greek  education,  VII.  671. 
Education 


and  Rome         ^ld  Roman  education,  VII.  671. 

Quintilian,  XX.  187,  514. 
Early  Christian  education,  VII.  671. 
Clement,  V.  819. 
Origen,  XVII.  839. 
Tertullian,  XXIII.  196. 
Augustine,  III.  75. 

Education  in  the  Middle  Ages,  VII.  671. 
See  also  Knighthood,  XIV.  no. 
Charlemagne,  V.  402. 


Ages>  Bede,  III.  480. 

John  Scotus  Erigena,  VIII.  522. 
Gerhard  Groot,  XI.  207. 
Thomas  a  Kempis,  XIV.  31. 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  XVI.  711. 
Education  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance,  VII.  672. 
See  also  Erasmus,  VIII.  512. 
Luther,  XV.  71. 
Melanchthon,  XV.  833. 

Twelve  famous  teachers  : 
Sturm  (i  507-89),  XVII.  673. 
Roger  Ascham  (1515-78),  II.  677. 

Comenius  (1592-1671),  VI.  182. 
Famous  Ignatius  Loyola,  XV.  31. 

Teachers.  Arnauld,  II.  62O. 

Pascal,  XVIII.  333. 
August  Hermann  Francke,  IX.  701. 


Books 


THE  TEACHER.  40 1 

Pestalozzi,  VII.  677. 
Froebel,  IX.  792. 
Jacotot,  XIII.  539. 
Thomas  Arnold,  II.  626. 
Horace  Mann,  XV.  492. 
Lindley  Murray,  sup.  2128. 
Mary  Lyon,  sup.  1936. 
James  B.  Angell,  sup.  186. 

Writers  on  Education : 

Roger  Ascham  ("The  Scholemaster  "),  11.677. 

Montaigne,  XVI.  767;  VII.  674. 

John  Locke,  XIV.  751. 
Writers  J°^n    Milton    ("Tractate    on    Education"), 

XVI.  324. 

The  Port  Royalists,  IX.  661. 
Rousseau  ("  Emile  "),  XXI.  26. 
Pestalozzi  ("Leonard  and   Gertrude"),  VII.  677. 
Jean  Paul  Richter  ("  Levana  "),  XX.  546. 
Goethe  ("  Wilhelm  Meister"),  X.  732. 
Herbert  Spencer,  sup.  2764. 
Alexander  Bain,  sup.  319. 
F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  sup.  357. 
William  T.  Harris,  sup.  1532. 

II.    EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS   IN  THE  OLD   WORLD. 
Plato's  Academy,  I.  68 ;  other  famous  academies,  I.  69. 
The  Athenaeum,  II.  831. 

Universities,   XXIII.  831.     (This  extensive  article  ex- 
hibits the  universities  in  their  historical  development,  each 
being  brought  under  notice,  as  far  as  practica- 
ble, in  the  order  of  its  original  foundation.) 
CoTeges.          Oxford  University,  III.  317  ;  XXIII.  837. 

Cambridge    University,    III.    579 ;  IV.  728 ; 
XXIII.  838. 
26 


Universities 


4O2  GUIDE  TO  THE  BRITANNICA. 

Aberdeen  University,  sup.  26. 

Edinburgh  University,  XXIII.  846. 

University  of  Leipsic,  XIV.  429;  XXIII.  841. 

Gresham  College,  sup.  1468. 

Newnham  College,  sup.  2182. 

Public  schools  in  England:  Charter  House,  sup.  757; 
Eton,  VIII.  632  ;  Christ's  Hospital  ("  Blue-coat  School  "), 
sup.  800;  Harrow,  sup.  1534;  Westminster  School,  sup. 
3127- 

Musical  conservatories,  VI.  291  ;  XVII.  83. 
Technical  schools,  XXIII.  105. 
Schools  for  the  blind,  III.  816,  826. 

Schools    for   the    deaf   and    dumb,  II.    722 ; 

Special        VII.  5. 

Schools.          Industrial  schools,  XX.  338. 
Kindergartens,  XIV.  79. 

Schools  in  England,  XIV.  834. 
Schools  in  France,  IX.  513. 
Schools  in  Germany,  X.  470. 
Schools  in  Russia,  XXI.  71. 

III.    EDUCATION   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

A  comprehensive  and  exceedingly  interesting  article 
on  the  history  of  Higher  Education  in  the  United  States 
is  contained  in  sup.  1 1 16-1 122.  This  article  is  the  work  of 

Dr.  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  of  Michigan  University,  and 

Higher        should  be    read    not  only  by  every  American 

Education,    teacher,   but  by   every  person  who  would    be 

informed  concerning  the  progress  of  education 
and  of  educational  ideas  in  this  country.  It  is  a  worthy 
companion  article  to  the  very  complete  history  of  Uni- 
versities, XXIII.  831. 


THE   TEACHER.  403 

Statistics,  showing  the  number  of  colleges  and  univer- 
sities in  each  State,  sup.  1109. 
Adelbert  College,  sup.  47. 
American  University  at  Washington,  sup.  167. 
Amherst  College,  sup.  167. 

American  School  at  Athens,  sup.  277. 

Antioch  College,  sup.  198. 

Baylor  University,  sup.  385. 

Beloit  College,  sup.  414. 
Boston  University,  sup.  528. 
Brown  University,  sup.  593. 
Bryn-Mawr  College,  sup.  602. 
Catholic  University  of  America,  sup.  724. 
Chicago,  University  of,  sup.  3003. 
Clark  University,  sup.  821. 
Colgate  University,  sup.  862. 
Colorado  College,  sup.  871. 
Colorado  University,  sup.  871. 
Columbia  University,  sup.  874;   XVII.  456. 
Columbian  University,  sup.  874. 
Cornell  College,  sup.  920. 
Cornell  University,  sup.  920. 
Dartmouth  College,  sup.  988. 
Depauw  University,  sup.  1029. 
Dickinson  College,  sup.  1044. 
Earlham  College,  sup.  1105. 
Fisk  University,  sup.  1283. 
Franklin  and  Marshall  College,  sup.  1329. 
General  Theological  Seminary,  sup.  1378. 
Georgetown  University,  sup.  1382. 
Georgia,  University  of,  sup.  1385. 
Girard  College,  sup.  1401. 
Hamilton  College,  sup.  1515. 
Hamline  University,  sup.  1516. 


404  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Hampden-Sydney  College,  sup.  1518. 

Harvard  University,  sup.  1538. 

Radcliffe  College,  sup.  1538. 

Haverford  College,  sup.  1547. 

Howard  University,  sup.  1623  ;  XI.  500. 

Illinois  University,  sup.  1656. 

Indiana  University,  sup.  1675. 

Iowa  College,  sup.  1693. 

Iowa,  University  of,  sup.  3005. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  sup.  1746. 

Kansas,  University  of,  sup.  1771. 

Kenyon  College,  sup.  1783. 

Knox  College,  sup.  1802. 

Lafayette  College,  sup.  1822. 

Lake  Forest  University,  sup.  1824. 

Lawrence  University,  sup.  1847. 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  sup.  1861, 

Miami  University,  sup.  2053. 

University  of  Michigan,  sup.  2057. 

Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  sup.  2061. 

Military  Colleges  and  Schools,  sup.  2063. 

Minnesota,  University  of,  sup.  2075. 

Mississippi,  University  of,  sup.  2080. 

Missouri,  University  of,  sup.  2083. 

Montana,  University  of,  sup.  2095. 

McKendree  College,  sup.  1957. 

Maine  State  College,  sup.  1974. 

Manhattan  College,  sup.  1981. 

Mount  Holyoke  College,  sup.  2121. 

Muhlenberg  College,  sup.  2123. 

Nashville,  University  of,  sup.  2138. 

Nebraska,  University  of,  sup.  2156. 

New  York,  University  of,  sup.  2205. 

University  of  New  Mexico,  sup.  116. 


THE   TEACHER.  405 

Niagara  University,  sup.  2207. 
North  Carolina  University,  sup.  2219. 
Northwestern  University,  sup.  2224. 
Notre  Dame,  University  of,  sup.  2228. 
Oberlin  College,  sup.  2235. 
Ohio  State  University,  sup.  2244. 
Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  sup.  2245. 
Oklahoma  University,  sup.  2247. 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  sup.  2342. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  sup.  2435. 
Princeton  University,  sup.  2447;  XIX.  742. 
Purdue  University,  sup.  2478. 
Randolph-Macon  College,  sup.  2509. 
Rochester,  University  of,  sup.  2562. 
Rutgers  College,  sup.  2594. 
St.  Louis  University,  supr  2606. 
South  Dakota,  University  of,  sup.   2759. 
Syracuse  University,  sup.  2843. 
Tennessee,  University  of,  sup.  2877. 
Texas  University,  sup.  2886. 
Trinity  College,  sup.  2944. 
Tufts  College,  sup.  2957. 
Tulane  University,  sup.  2957. 
Union  College,  sup.  2979. 
University  of  the  South,  sup.   3005. 
Vanderbilt  University,  sup.  3021. 
Vassar  College,  sup.  3024. 
Vermont,  University  of,  sup.  3035. 
Virginia,  University  of,  sup.  3053. 
Washington,  University  of,  sup.  3095. 
Washington  and  Lee  University,  sup.  3097. 
Wellesley  College,  sup.  3120. 
Wesleyan  University,  sup.  3123. 
Western  Reserve  University,  sup.  3125. 


406  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Williams  College,  sup.  3159. 

Yale  University,  XVII.  394;  sup.  3216. 

College  Fraternities  in  the  United  States,  sup.  863. 

University  settlements,  sup.  3005. 

University  Press,  sup.  3005. 

Technical  schools  in  America,  sup.  2862. 

Business  colleges,  sup.  635. 
Special  Scientific  schools,  I.  70. 

Schools.  Smithsonian  Institution,  sup.  2738. 

Scientific  societies,  sup.  52. 

Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scientific  Circle,  sup.  762. 

University  Extension,  sup.  3002. 

Examinations,  VIII.  777. 

Fellowships,  sup.  1256. 

Private  schools  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2648. 

Public  schools  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2650. 

High  schools  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2656. 

Manual  training  in  the  public  schools,  sup.   1985-2659. 

Normal  schools  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2115,  2657. 

Evening  schools,  sup.  2657. 

Rural  schools,  sup.  2660. 

Kindergartens,  XIV.  79;  sup.  1790. 

School  system  among  the  Indians,  sup.  1669. 

Schools  in  Indian  Territory,  sup.  1676. 

Compulsory  education,  sup.  2661. 

Legal  education  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1856. 

Medical  education  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2025. 

Theological  education  in  the  United  States,  sup.  2889. 

Union  Theological  Seminary,  sup.  2980. 

Education  of  Women  in  the  United  States,  sup.  3180. 

National  Bureau  of  Education,  sup.  2658. 


At  Home 


THE   TEACHER.  407 


IV.    EDUCATION   IN   VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 

Generally  a  full  account  of  the  educational  institutions 
of  any  country  may  be  found  in   the   article  referring  to 
the  country  in  question. 
United  States,  XXIII.  828. 
France,  IX.  512. 
Institute  of  France,  XIII.  160. 

Germany,  X.  470. 

Great  Britain,  VII.  679  ;  XIV.  834. 
Abroad        Scientific  academies,  XXII.  221  ;  sup.  32. 

Italy.  XIII.  460. 
Russia,  XXI.  71. 
Austria,  III.  118. 
Iceland,  XII.  619. 
India,  XII.  774. 
Arabia,  II.  253. 

V.    PSYCHOLOGY. 

The  article  on  PSYCHOLOGY,  by  Professor  James  Ward, 
of    Trinity    College,     Cambridge     (Volume     XX.)      fills 
nearly  fifty  pages  of  the   Britannica,  and   contains  more 
matter  than  the  ordinary  school  text-books   on   this  sub- 
ject.    The  teacher  who   cares  to  go  so   deeply 
into  the  study  as  to  master  this  entire   treatise 
Mind          w*^  probably  not  desire  a  more  extended  course 
of  reading.     It  may  be  preferable,  however,  to 
read  only  selected  portions  of  the  article,  and  to  supple- 
ment the  knowledge  thus  gained  with  collateral  readings 
from  other  sources.     In  such  case  the  following  subjects 
may  be  included  :  Definition,  page  37  ;  standpoint  of  psy- 
chology, page  38  ;  constituent  elements  of  mind,  page  39  ; 
feeling,  page  40 ;  attention,  page  41  ;  dependence  of  ac- 
tion on   feeling,  page  43 ;  relativity,   page  49 ;   sensation 


408  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

and  movement,  page  50 ;  perception,  page  52  ;  intuition 
of  things,  page  55;  imagination  or  ideation,  page  57; 
obliviscence,  page  61  ;  expectation,  page  63  ;  feeling,  page 
66  ;  intellection,  page  75,  etc. 

Evolution  of  mind,  VIII.  70. 

Mental  association,  II.  730. 

Mental  powers  of  man,  II.  109. 

Apperception,  sup.  207. 

Attention,  III.  52. 

Relativity  of  knowledge,  I.  58. 

Sense  distinguished  from  understanding,  VIII.  I. 

Locke  on  this  subject,  XIV.  758. 

Faculties  of  perception,  XVIII.  845. 

Kant  on  imagination,  XIII.  852. 

Memory — mnemonics,  XVI.  532. 

Optimism  and  pessimism,  XVIII.  684= 

The  following  biographical  notes  should  also  be  read  : 
Aristotle,  II.  522. 
Xenocrates,  XXIV.  719. 

Democritus,  VII.  59. 
Great          Plato,  XIX.  201. 

Thomas  Brown,  IV.  388. 

Bishop  Berkeley,  III.  589. 
Pierre  Charron,  V.  431. 
Etienne  de  Condillac,  VI.  251. 
Victor  Cousin,  VI.  525. 
Descartes,  VII.  126. 
Kant,  XII.  848. 
Leibnitz,  XIV.  422. 
Herman  Lotze,  XV.  14. 
Schleiermacher,  XXI.  411. 
Schopenhauer,  XXI.  457. 
Hegel,  XI.  620, 


THE   TEACHER.  409 

Herbart,  XL  719. 
Samuel  Bailey,  III.  242. 
David  Hume,  XII.  352. 
G.  H.  Lewes,  XIV.  491. 

VI.   THEORIES   OF  EDUCATION. 

Plato's,  VII.  671. 

Socrates's,  XXII.  236. 

Quintilian's,  VII.  671. 

Theories      Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  XL  207. 
Education     Tneories  of  Erasmus,  VII.  672  ;  VIII.  512. 
Theories  of  Sturm,  VII.  673. 

Theories  of  Comenius,  VI.  182  ;  VII.  673. 

The  Jesuits',  theory,  XIII.  645. 

The  Port  Royalists',  XIX.  533. 

Rousseau's,  VII.  675. 

Pestalozzi's,  XIV.  79;  XXII.  798. 

Froebel's,  IX.  792. 

Herbart's,  XL  798. 

Locke's,  XIV.  757. 

Milton's,  XVI.  330. 


410  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

CHAPTER  LIX. 

THE   WRITER. 

"  Certainly,  the  art  of  writing  is  the  most  miraculous  of  all  things  man 
has  devised." — Thomas  Carlyle. 

"  There  are  two  duties  incumbent  upon  any  man  who  enters  on  the 
business  of  writing — truth  to  fact,  and  a  good  spirit  in  the  treatment." 
— Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

I.    PENMANSHIP  AND   ITS   ALLIED   ARTS. 

FIRST,  as  to  the  manual  exercise  of  penmanship,  what 
is  there  in  the  Britannica  which  commends  itself  to  the 
writer,  or  to  him  who  is  interested  in  the  art  of  writing? 
Let  us  see. 

Without  implements  and  materials  there  can  be  no  writ- 
ing. The  history  of  these  and  the  description  of  their 

manufacture  cannot  fail  to  be  of  interest. 
Writing  Read  the  article  PEN,  XVIII.  483  ;  also  the 

Materials,      account  of   the   manufacture  of  modern  steel 

pens,  in  the  American  Revisions;  INK,  XIII. 
79 ;  then  an  account  of  the  invention  of  paper,  IV.  38 ;  of 
its  invention  by  the  Chinese,  V.  662  ;  of  the  uses  made  of 
it  in  ancient  times,  XVIII.  144;  and,  finally,  the  special 
article  PAPER,  XVIII.  217.  Read  also  of  the  Papyrus, 
XVIII.  231  ;  and  of  Parchment,  XVIII.  271  ;  XIV.  390, 
and  IV.  37.  The  earliest  writing  materials  are  described 

in  XVIII.  231  b. 

Hand-  A  concise  history  of  the  art  of  writing  may 

writing.       be  found  in  sup.  3207.     The  history  of  ancient 

handwriting  is  related  in  a  very  interesting  ar- 
ticle on  PALEOGRAPHY,  XVIII.  143-165 ;  the  ancient 
system  of  Hieroglyphics,  XI.  794 ;  cuneiform  writing,  VI. 


THE   WRITER.  411 

707,  and  XL  217  ;  Mexican  picture  writing,  XVI.  212  ; 
Chinese  writing,  V.  653-659;  Sanskrit,  XXI.  269-272. 

A  comprehensive  history  and  description  of  Alphabets 
is  given  in  I.  600-614. 

The  alphabets  of  different  nations  also  receive  separate 
notice.  For  example  : 

The  Phoenician,  XI.  807,  and  XVIII.  802,  806  ;  Egyp- 
tian, XL  807 ;  Greek,  XI.  597;  Roman,  XIII.  125  ;  San- 
skrit, XXL  270;  the  old  Norse  Runes,  XXL  366,  370. 

The  deaf  and  dumb  alphabet  is  described  in  VII.  8  ;  the 
phonetic  method  in  XVIII.  812,  and  XXII.  381,  and  the 
phonographic  in  XXL  836. 

(See,  also,  Archaeology,  II.  342,  and  the  chapter  in  this 
GUIDE,  entitled,  The  Stenographer  and  Typewriter^) 

II.    COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC. 

The  mental  processes  of  writing  are  closely  related  to 

the  various  branches  of  language  study,  such  as  grammar, 

rhetoric,  prosody,  etc.     Hence  the  inquiry  may 

Composi-      De  made,  "  What  are  the  principal  articles  in 

tion.          the  Britannica  which  will  be    interesting  and 

useful  to  the  busy  man  who  wishes  to  acquire 

correctness  and  facility  in  English  composition?"     Let  us 

briefly  notice  a  few. 

The  special  article  RHETORIC,  XX.  509,  is  interesting 

and  comprehensive,  and  in  large  part  historical.     Notice 

the  section  on  rhetoric  in  ancient  Greece,  XX. 

509  ;  that  on  rhetoric  in  the  Middle  Ages,  XX. 

.  515  ;  and  that  on  modern  writers  on  rhetoric, 

XX.  515. 

Still  pursuing  the  history  of  this  subject,  read  the  notice 
of  Aristotle's  rhetoric,  II.  517 ;  of  Lysias's,  XV.  118  ;  and 
of  Quintilian's,  XX.  187.  Read  also  the  brief  account  of 
Whately's  famous  work,  XXIV.  530. 


412  GUIDE   TO   THE    BRITANNICA. 

Being  fairly  introduced  into  this  study,  you  are  now  pre- 
pared to  consult  the  Britannica  for  the  large  number  of 
separate  articles  relating  to  the  terms,  expressions,  and 
rules  of  rhetoric  and  its  kindred  branches  of  study.  Here 
are  some  that  are  found  in  the  first  two  volumes  ;  they  are 
mentioned  simply  as  examples,  trusting  that  the  reader 
will  be  able  to  find  all  other  articles  of  the  kind  without 
further  directions  : 

In  Volume  I.  Acrostic,  Alcaics,  Allegory,  Alliteration, 
Alexandrine  Verse,  Anacoluthon,  Anachronism,  Ana- 
gram, Abbreviations,  etc. 

In  Volume  II.  Anecdote,  Anticlimax,  Antithesis,  An- 
tonomasia,  Aphorism,  Apologue,  Apothegm,  etc. 

In  the  American  supplements  many  additional  articles 
may  be  found,  such  as  : 

Blank  Verse,  sup.  494. 

Climax,  sup.  833. 

Apostrophe,  sup.  205. 

Hexameters,  sup.  1577. 

Prosody,  sup.  2459. 

By  observing  the  list  of  terms  and  expressions  used  in 
any  text-book  in  rhetoric,  you  may  complete  this  list ;  and 
then,  by  finding  the  various  articles  in  the  Britannica,  you 
will  observe  how  much  more  fully  they  are  treated  there 
than  in  any  of  the  smaller  manuals. 

The  article  GRAMMAR,  XL  37,   belongs  rather  to  the 
philologist  than  to  the  writer,  and  more  to  the  student  than 
to  the  busy  man.     The  section  on  school  gram- 
mars, XI.  43  a,  is  interesting,  and  well  worth 
Grammar.  , . 

your  reading. 

Every  writer  will  find  certain  articles  in  the 
Britannica  very  valuable  for  reference  in  case  of  any  dis- 
pute or  lapse  of  memory  regarding  best  usage,  etc.  For 
example,  the  articles  on  ABBREVIATIONS,  I.  26,  and  sup. 


THE   WRITER.  413 

16,  contain  a  correct  list  of  all  the  more  common  abbre- 
viations used  by  reputable  writers.  The  latter  article  is 
very  complete.  It  is  followed  by  a  list  of  Abbreviatory 
Signs,  sup.  23,  showing  the  marks  and  symbols  employed 
in  commerce  and  in  the  various  arts  and  sciences.  A  list  of 
Forms  of  Address  employed  in  letter-writing  is  given  in 
sup.  46. 

The  methods  pursued  in  correcting  printers'  proofs  are 
fully  explained  in  sup.  2454.  If  the  date  of  any  important 
event  has  been  forgotten,  it  may  very  likely  be  found  by 
referring  to  the  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE,  V.  720.  In  short, 
the  Britannica  is  always  ready  to  aid  one's  memory,  and  to 
no  other  individual  does  it  give  more  assistance  in  this 
way  than  to  the  writer. 

But,  after  all,  it  is  chiefly  through  the  study  of  the 
works  of  the  best  writers  that  one  can  hope  properly  to 
improve  his  own  style,  and  to  acquire  facility  and  elegance 
in  the  use  of  language.  Hence  the  busy  writer  is  urged 
to  make  a  special  study  of  the  references  in  the  chapter 
on  Literature  in  this  GUIDE ;  also  the  chapter  entitled, 
The  Public  Speaker. 

III.    ONE    HUNDRED    SUBJECTS   FOR   ESSAYS. 

The  following  list  is  designed  chiefly  to  aid  teachers 
and  pupils  at  school  in  the  selection  of  subjects  for  es- 
says, some  of  the  materials  for  which  may  be  acquired 
through  the  systematic  study  of  certain  articles  in  the 
Encyclopedia  Britannica.  A  good  rule,  which  every  writer 
should  attempt  to  observe,  is  this  :  "  Never  undertake  to 
write  upon  any  topic  until  you  have  made  a  careful  study 
of  that  topic.  Store  your  mind  with  knowledge,  so  that 
your  writing  will  be  the  visible  expression  of  your  thoughts. 
Always  have  something  to  say  before  you  attempt  to 
speak."  The  various  references  mentioned  or  pointed 


414  GUIDE   TO    THE   BRITANNICA. 

out  will  indicate  some  of  the  places  in  the  Britannica  where 

information  regarding  those    subjects  may   be 

Subjects      found.     But  they  are  intended   only  as  hints, 

for  Essays,  and  are  not  designed  to  relieve  the  student 
from  the  very  necessary  labor  of  independent 

research. 

1.  Temperance.    See  the  references  given  in  the  chapter 
entitled,  The  Public  Speaker. 

2.  The  Wonders  of  Electricity.    See  VIII.  3  ;  XV.  773  ; 

XX.  249.     The  references  in  the  chapter  for    The  Elec- 
trician, in  this  GUIDE,  will  be  helpful. 

3.  Ancient  Oratory.     See    the    references   to    famous 
speakers,  in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Public  Speaker. 

4.  American   Poetry.     Study  the  article  on  American 
literature,  I.  731-734.    Read  also  the  biographical  sketches 
of  the  great    American    poets :    Henry    W.    Longfellow, 
XIV.  860;  John  G.  Whittier,  sup.  3146;  William  Cullen 
Bryant,  sup.  601  ;  James  Russell  Lowell,  sup.  1924;  Edgar 
Allan  Poe,  XIX.  255  ;  Walt  Whitman,  sup.  3145. 

5.  True  Greatness  in  Man.     See  biographical  sketches 
of  such  men  as  Joseph,   XIII.   749;  Moses,  XVI.   860; 
Confucius,  VI.  258  ;  Buddha,  III.  375  ;  Elijah,  VIII.   134; 
Socrates,  XXII.  231  ;  Cato,  V.  239;  Charlemagne,  V.  402  ; 
King   Alfred,    I.    506;    St.   Louis,   XV.    18;  Savonarola, 

XXI.  333;    Galileo,    X.    30;    John     Milton,    XVI.    324; 
George  Washington,  XXIV.  387;  and  many  others. 

6.  The  Earth.     See  references  in  the  Courses  of  Read- 
ing in  Geography,  in  this  GUIDE. 

7.  Mountains.     Refer  to  special  article,  XVII.  4. 

8.  The   Ocean.     Water  of,   XXI.  611;  waves,  XXIV. 
419;  depths,  III.  17;  temperature,  VI.  4;  tides,  XXIII. 
353  ;  fishes,  XII.  684. 

9.  Great  Cities  of  the  World.     See  London,  XIV.  818  ; 
Paris,   XVIII.  274;  New  York,  XVII,  457;  Berlin,  III, 


THE   WRITER.  415 

598  ;  and  others  that  will  readily  be  suggested.     Consult 
the  Index  volume. 

10.  Ships   and    Sailors.      See  chapter    in    this  GUIDE, 
entitled,  The.  Seaman. 

11.  Progress  of   Inventions.      See  in  this   GUIDE,    the 
readings  in  "  Archaeology,"  and  also  the  chapter  entitled, 
TJie  Inventor. 

12.  The  Steam   Engine.     Consult  the   Index  volume  ; 
refer   also    to    the  chapter   in    this  GUIDE  entitled,  The 
Machinist. 

13.  War  and  Peace.    Refer  to  the  chapter  entitled,  The 
Soldier.    See  International  Peace,  XIII.  197.    Consult  the 
Index  volume. 

14.  Slavery.     See  special  article,  XXII.    129;    ancient 
slavery,  XIX.  348;    negro,  XVII.   319.      Consult    Index 
volume.      Read  about  Wilberforce,  XXIV.    565  ;   Clark- 
son,  V.  813;  Garrison,  X.  85  ;  Wendell  Phillips,  sup.  2326; 
John  Brown,  IV.  385  ;  and  the  anti-slavery  leaders  named 
in    the    chapter    entitled,     The    Philanthropist    and   Re- 
former. 

15.  Socialism.      Consult    Index   volume.     Read   about 
Robert  Owen,  XVIII.  87  ;  Fourier,  IX.  489  ;  Saint-Simon, 
XXI.  197  ;  Rodb'ertus,  XX.  616;  Proudhon,  XIX.  867  ;  the 
Shakers,  XXI.  736  ;  the  Oneida  Community,  XVII.  772. 

1 6.  Taxation.     See  references  in  this  GUIDE,  in  the  sec- 
tion on  Finance  in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Banker  and 
Financier. 

17.  The  Origin  of  Language.     See  VIII.  769;  consult 
Index  volume  under  the  headings   Language  and  Philol- 
ogy.    See-  references  in  this   GUIDE,  in  the  Readings  in 
Philology. 

18.  Land  Tenure.     Consult  Index  volume.     See  Adam 
Smith,    XIX.    367;  Ricardo,  XIX.    374;  Henry  George, 
X.  742. 


GUIDE   TO    THE   BRITANNICA. 

19.  Law  in  Ancient  Times.     Consult  the  references  in 
the  chapter  entitled,  The  Lawyer. 

20.  Feudalism.     Consult  Index  volume.     See  Knight, 
XIV.   no;    Castle  V.    197;  Tournaments,  XXIII.   489; 
Chivalry  (Index) ;  Homage,  XII.  107,  etc. 

21.  The  Revival  of  Learning.     See  Renaissance,  XX. 
380.     Consult  Index  volume 

22.  The  Art  of  Printing.     See  references  in  the  chapter 
entitled,  The  Printer  and  the  Publisher,  in  this  GUIDE. 

23.  Newspapers.     See   references  in    the   chapter  enti- 
tled, The  Journalist. 

24.  Perseverance  Leads  to  Success.    For  illustrations  of 
this  truth,  see  the   biographical  references  in  this  GUIDE, 
page  40. 

25.  Education  in  Greece  and  Rome.  See  the  references 
in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Teacher. 

26.  Great  Educators.    See  the  references  in  the  chapter 
entitled,  The  Teacher. 

27.  The   Science  of   Education.     See  the  references  in 
the  chapter  entitled,  The  Teacher. 

28.  Famous  Institutions  of  Learning.     See    the  refer- 
ences in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Teacher. 

29.  The  Progress. of  Medical  Science.     See  the  histori- 
cal and  biographical  references  in  the  chapter  entitled,  The 
Physician,  in  this  GUIDE.     Consult  Index  volume. 

30.  Music  and    Musicians.     See  the   references  in  the 
chapter  entitled,  The  Musician,  in  this  GUIDE. 

31.  The  Discovery  of  America.     See  VI.  173;  X.  180; 
XI.  171  ;  Icelandic  discoveries,  XII.  624;  early  knowledge 
of,  X.  178  ;  original  inhabitants,  XVI.  206  ;  origin  of  name 
America,  X.  182,  and  XXIV.  192.     See  also  references  in 
this  GUIDE,  in  the  Readings  in  History. 

32.  Great  Americans.     See  the  biographical  references 
in  this  GUIDE. 


THE   WRITER.  417 

33.  Washington  and  Lafayette.     Consult  Index  volume. 
See  references  to  great  Americans,  above. 

34.  Hamilton  and   Burr.     See  XL  412;    XXIII.  756; 
XIX.  384;  XL  413. 

35.  Great  American  Orators.     See  the  biographical  ref- 
erences in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Public  Speaker. 

36.  The    Invention  of  the   Telescope.     Consult   Index; 
volume. 

37.  The  Telegraph  and  the  Telephone.     See   the  refer- 
ences in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Electrician,  in  this  GUIDE. 

38.  Astrology.  See  the  references  given,  in  this  GUIDE, 
in  the  chapter  on  Astronomy. 

39.  The  Philosopher's  Stone.    See  the  references  given, 
under  Alchemy,  in  this  volume,  page  170. 

40.  The  Progress  of  Chemistry.     See  special  article,  V. 
459.     Consult  Index  volume. 

41.  The  Air  We  Breathe.    Consult  Index  volume;  also 
see   Atmosphere,   Oxygen,   Respiration,  Ventilation,  As- 
phyxia. 

42.  Water  and  its  Uses.     Consult  Index  volume. 

43.  Curious    Facts   About  Trees.     See   the  references 
in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Woodsman. 

44.  The  Solar  System.    See  the  references  on  page  91, 
of  this  GUIDE. 

45.  The  Moon.     Consult  the  Index  volume. 

46.  The  Worship  of  the  Sun.     By  the  Greeks,  II.   185  ; 
by  the  Phoenicians,  XVIII.  802;  by  the  Sabasans,  XXIV. 
741  ;  at  Heliopolis,  XIX.  91  ;  at  Baalbec,  III.  177. 

47.  The    Fire    Worshipers.     See  XXIV.    193;    XVII. 
158;  XL  679;  XIX.  807. 

48.  The  American  Indians.     Consult  Index  volume. 

49.  African  Explorations.     Consult  Index  volume. 

50.  The  Arctic  Regions.     See  II.  478;    XIX.  315;  X. 
190  ;  IX.  721. 

27 


41 8  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNIC  A. 

$ i.  The  Gulf  Stream.     Consult  Index  volume. 

52.  Great    Cities.      See  the   references  on   page  125  of 
this  GUIDE. 

53.  Our  Government.     See  the  references  in  the  chap- 
ter entitled,  The  American  Citizen. 

54.  Monarchy.     Consult  Index  volume  ;  also  see  refer- 
ences on  page  282  of  this  GUIDE. 

55.  The  Mongol  Races  of  Asia.     Consult  Index  volume. 

56.  China  and  Japan.     Consult  Index  volume. 

57.  Buddha  and  Buddhism.     Consult  Index  volume. 

58.  Missions.     See  the  references  on    page  382  of  this 
GUIDE. 

59.  Idolatry.     See  XII.  698,  710. 

60.  Mohammedanism.     Consult  Index  volume. 

61.  The  Jews.     Consult  Index  volume.     See  also  Read- 
ings for  Bible  Students. 

62.  The  Gipsies.     Consult  Index  volume. 

63.  The  Moors  in  Spain.   See,  in  Index  volume,  the  fol- 
lowing  subjects  :    Spain,   Arabs,  Moors,  Alhambra,  Gra- 
nada, Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

64.  The  Turks.     Consult  Index  volume. 

65.  The  Battle  of  Hastings.     Seethe  following  subjects 
in  Index  volume  :    William  the  Conqueror,  Normans,  Har- 
old, Hastings,  Battle. 

66.  Trial  by  ordeal.     See  XVII.  818. 

67.  Trial  by  jury.     Consult  Index  volume. 

68.  The   Knights  Templars.     See   Templars,  in  Index 
volume. 

69.  Poetry.     Consult  Index  volume. 

Consult  Index  volume,  and  also  this  GUIDE,  for  valuable 
references  to  the  following  subjects  : 

70.  Chaucer,  the  father  of  English  poetry. 

71.  Milton  and  Dante. 

72.  Shakespeare's  Dramas. 


THE   WRITER.  419 

73.  The  Greek  Drama.     See   also  references  on   page 
442,  of  this  GUIDE. 

74.  Pope  and  Dryden. 

75.  Addison  and  the  Spectator. 

76.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson. 

77.  Dictionaries.      See   also  references  in  the    chapter 
entitled,  The  Bookman,  in  this  GUIDE. 

78.  History  of  Agriculture.     See  the  chapter  entitled, 
The  Farmer,  in  this  GUIDE. 

79.  Patents.     See  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Inventor,  in 
this  GUIDE. 

80.  Copyright.     See   The  Printer  and  the  Publisher,  in 
this  GUIDE. 

81.  Books  and  How  they  Are  Made.     See  the  chapter 
entitled,  The  Printer  and  the  Publisher,  in  this  GUIDE. 

82.  On  Costume. 

83.  On  Commerce.     See  also  the  chapter  entitled,  The 
Merchant. 

84.  On  Exercise.     See  Athletic  Sports,  Health,  Gym- 
nastics, Callisthenics,  etc. 

85.  On  Games  and  Amusements.     See  also  the  chapter 
on  Sports  and  Pastimes. 

86.  Domestic  Animals.     See  Horse,  Dog,  Cat,  Sheep, 
etc.;  also  the  references  on  page  48,  of  this  GUIDE. 

87.  The  Animal    Kingdom.      See    the    readings  about 
animals,  page  47,  of  this  GUIDE. 

88.  Labor  and   Capital.      See   the    references  in    the 
chapter  entitled,  The  Laborer,  in  this  GUIDE ;  also  XXIII. 
500. 

89.  Great  Guns.      See  the    references    in    the   chapter 
entitled,  The  Soldier,  in  this  GUIDE. 

90.  Invention  of  Gunpowder. 

91.  War.     See  also  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Soldier,  in 
this  GUIDE. 


420  GUIDE   TO    THE   BRITANNICA. 

92.  Stories  of  Old  Greece.     See  Legends,  page   165,  of 
this  GUIDE. 

93.  Myths  of   the  Old   World.     See  the   references  on 
page  163,  of  this  GUIDE. 

94.  The  Greatest   Books.     See    the    references    in    the 
chapter  entitled,  The  Bookman. 

95.  The  World's  Great  Thinkers.     See  the  biographical 
references  on  page  149,  of  this  GUIDE. 

96.  Great   Reformers.     See   references     on    pages  383- 
387,  of  this  GUIDE. 

97.  The   Work  of  the    Farmer.       See  the  chapter  en- 
titled, The  Farmer. 

98.  Famous  Merchants.     See  references  on  page  324,  of 
this  GUIDE. 

99*  The  Trade  of  the  World.     See  references  on  page 
324,  of  this  volume. 

100.  Superstition.     See  page  170,  of  this  volume. 


THE  STENOGRAPHER  AND  TYPEWRITER.     42! 


CHAPTER  LX. 

THE  STENOGRAPHER  AND  TYPEWRITER. 

"For  your  writing  and  reading,  let  that  appear  when  there  is  no  need/' 

— Much  Ado  About  Nothing 

THE  successful  stenographer  and  typewriter  should  be  a 
person  of  many  accomplishments.     He  should,  in  the  first 

place,  be  a  thorough  master  of  the  art  of  short- 

Qualifica-      hand  writing,  alert  in  mind,  quick  with  the  hand, 

tions.          accurate,  ingenious.     In   the    second  place,  he 

should  understand  thoroughly  the  construction 
and  manipulation  of  the  type-writing  machine,  should  be 
a  good  speller,  should  know  how  to  punctuate  correctly 
and  when  to  use  capital  letters,  and  should  have  a  practical 
acquaintance  with  the  rules  of  English  grammar  and  com- 
position and  with  the  forms  to  be  observed  in  letter- 
writing.  Besides  all  this,  a  general  knowledge  of  business 
forms  and  methods  is  often  of  great  benefit,  sometimes 
indispensable.  If,  in  addition  to  all  these  qualifications, 
the  stenographer  has  at  command  a  stock  of  information 
regarding  history,  politics,  the  sciences,  and  the  arts,  he 
may  be  quite  sure  that  he  will  never  want  for  a  good  posi- 
tion and  a  comfortable  salary. 

Young  men  and  young  women  who  are  obliged  to  help 
themselves  to  an  education  of  this  kind  will  find  no  surer 

guide  than  the  volume  which  they  now  hold  in 

their  hands  ;  they  will  find  no  better   or  more 
Informa- 
tion trustworthy    assistant    than    the    Encyclopedia 

Britannica.  As  regards  that  sort  of  general 
education  to  which  we  have  just  alluded,  let  the  student  of 


422  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

stenography  and  type -writing  consult  the  references 
named  in  various  chapters  of  this  GUIDE — for  example  : 
the  Readings  in  History  ;  the  Readings  in  Geography  ;  the 
Readings  in  Physics  ;  the  chapters  entitled,  The  American 
Citizen,  The  Lawyer,  The  Merchant  and  Trader,  The 
Banker  and  Financier,  The  Builder,  etc.  As  regards  the 
special  kind  of  knowledge  which  is  indispensable  to  the 
practice  of  his  art,  he  will  find  much  that  is  helpful  and 
instructive  in  such  articles  as  the  following : 

History  of  the  English  language  (modern),  VIII.   399- 
403- 

Phonetics,  XVIII.  811. 

Phonetic  spelling,  XVIII.  812. 

Speech  sounds,  XXII.  381. 

Alphabet,  I.  601. 

Abbreviations,  I.  26,  and  sup.  16. 
Abbreviatory  signs,  sup.  23. 

Tachygraphy,  or  ancient  systems  of  shorthand,  XVIII. 
164. 

Shorthand  in  English-speaking  countries,  XXI.  836. 
The  a  b  c  systems,  XXI.  836. 
Pitman's  phonography,  XXI.  838-840. 

Foreign  shorthand  systems,  XXI.  841. 
Shorthand.    Stenography,  sup.  2784. 

Sir  Isaac  Pitman,  sup.  2396  ;  XXI.  834. 

Ben.  Pitman,  sup.  2395. 
Parliamentary  reporting,  XXI.  841. 

Forms  of  address  in  letter-writing,  sup.  46. 

Type-writers,  sup.  2972-2975. 
Type-writing  machines,  XXIV.  698. 


THE   PRINTER  AND   THE   PUBLISHER.  423 


CHAPTER  LXI. 

THE  PRINTER  AND  THE  PUBLISHER. 

"  Once  invent  Printing/you  metamorphosed  all  Universities,  or  super- 
seded them." — Thomas  Carlyle. 

I.  TYPOGRAPHY. 

ONE  of  the  most  interesting  articles  in  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  is  that  which  relates  to  the  history  of  printing, 
Volume  XXI 1 1.,  pages  681-696.  Here  we  have 
Invention  an  account  of  ^  first  attempts  at  printing, 
Printing  which  antedated  the  time  of  Gutenberg  and  of 
Caxton  by  many  years,  if  not  by  many  cen- 
turies. Then  follow  chapters  on  block-printing,  page  682; 
on  the  old  block-books  of  German  origin,  page  683  ;  on 
the  work  of  Gutenberg  at  Mainz,  page  684  ;  on  the  inven- 
tion controversy,  page  687  ;  on  the  history  of  the  earliest 
types,  with  fac-similes,  page  693,  etc.  In  connection  with 
the  reading  of  this  article,  references  may  be  made  to  the 
following  articles  : 

John  Gutenberg,  XL  336. 
Johann  Faust,  IX.  853. 

William  Caxton,  V.  279 ;  books  printed  by 
Great  him,  VIII.  413. 

Printers.  Aldus  Manutius,  XV.  512,  514. 

Christopher  Plantin,  XIX.  176. 
Elzevir,  VIII.  156. 
Jodocus  Badius,  III.  228. 
Stevens,  or  Estiennes,  XXII.  534. 
The  history  of  modern  types,  XXIII.  695,  next  claims 


424  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

our   attention.     The    Italic    type,    first    used    by   Aldus 
Manutius,  is  said  to  be  an  imitation  of  the  hand- 
writing of   Petrarch.     The  origin   of  all  other 
Types. 

types  in  common  use  is  explained  in  this  chap- 
ter, which  closes  with  a  complete  list  of  works 
on  the  invention,  progress,  and  process  of  printing.     Some 
notice  of  early  English  typography  is  given  in  XIV.  705, 
and  also  in  the  article  on  Caxton  referred  to  above. 

The  latter  half  of  the  article  on  typography,  XXIII. 
697,  is  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  practical  printing. 
Here  are  separate  chapters  on  type-setting  or  composing, 
page  700 ;  on  stereotyping  or  electrotyping,  page  702  ;  on 
press-work  and  presses,  page  704 ;  on  color-printing,  page 
708  ;  on  artistic  printing,  page  709  ;  on  the  departments  of 
a  printing  establishment,  page  710. 

In  connection  with  this  part,  refer  to  the  articles,  EN- 
GRAVING, VIII.  439;  and  LITHOGRAPHY,  XIV.  697.   The 
following  articles  also  contain  additional  information  on 
subjects  connected  with  the  printer's  art : 
Old  Wine-press  of  Gutenberg,  sup*  2448. 
The  Stanhope  Press,  sup.  2448. 

The  Adams  Press  (1824),  sup.  2448. 
The  Washington  Press  (1829),  sup.  2448. 
Job  Presses,  sup.  2449. 
Cylinder  Presses,  sup.  2449. 
Illustrated-work  Printing  Machines,  sup.  2450. 
Perfecting  Presses,  sup.  2451. 
Mammoth  Presses,  sup.  2451. 
Lithographic  Presses,  XIV.  1012. 
Color  Printing,  sup.  871. 
Richard  M.  Hoe,  sup.  1512. 
University  Press,  ^up.  3005. 
See,  especially,  Proof-readers'  Marks,  sup.  2454. 
International  Typographical  Union,  sup.  1814. 


THE   PRINTER   AND   THE   PUBLISHER.  425 

Type-founding,  XXIII.  699. 

Type-setting  machines,  XXIII.  700;  sup.  2969. 

The  linotype,  sup.  1889. 

Invention  of  stereotyping,  X.  127. 

Electrotypes,  VIII.  115. 

Type  for  the  blind,  sup.  496;  III.  827. 

George  Bruce,  type  founder,  sup.  596. 

Theodore  L.  De  Vinne,  sup.  1030. 

II.    BOOKS   AND    BOOKSELLING. 

See  the  special  article  on  BOOKS,  IV.  37. 
Constituent  parts  of  books,  III.  652. 

Ancient  forms  of  books,  XVIII.  144. 
Old  Material  of  ancient  books,  IV.  37,  38. 

Books.  Early  printed  books,  III.  652. 

Rare  and  curious  books,  III.  654. 
Anonymous  and  pseudonymous  books,  III.  657. 
Condemned  and  prohibited  books,  III.  658. 
Bookbinding,  IV.  41. 
Albums,  I.  456;  almanacs,  I.  590. 
Annals,  II.  60;  anthologies,  II.  103. 
Encyclopaedias,  VIII.  190. 
Libraries,  XIV.  509  ;  Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  III. 
848  ;  Sir  Robert  Bruce  Cotton,  VI.  509  ;  Maglia- 
bechi,  XV.  217;    Dibdin,  VII.  172  ;    biblioma- 
nia, III.  655. 

Bookselling,  IV.  39 ;  book-trade  in  Europe,  X.  472. 
Baron  Tauchnitz,  sup.  2858. 
Copyright,   VI.   356;   English   laws  of  copy- 
*  right,  XIV.  541  ;  international  copyright,  I.  720. 

History  of  copyright  since  1877,  SUP-  9!3- 
For    other  references,  see  the  chapter    entitled,     The 
Bookman, 


426  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 


CHAPTER  LXII. 

THE   JOURNALIST. 

"We  read  nowadays  in  the  market  place — I  would  rather  say  in  some 
large  steam  factory  of  letter-press  where  damp  sheets  of  new  print  whirl 
round  us  perpetually." — Frederic  Harrison. 

AN  entertaining  and  valuable  article  on  newspapers  is 

contained  in  the  seventeenth  volume  of  the  Britannica, 

pages  412-437.    The  history  of  journalism  in  Great  Britain 

is  given  at  length,  and  is  followed  by  an  account 

of  the  newspapers  of  other  European  countries. 

Journalism.    The  NEWSPAPERS   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES   is 

the  subject  of  an  interesting  and  appreciative 

chapter,  XVII.  433-437.     In  a  supplementary  article  on 

the  same  subject,  sup.  2186-2177,  a  complete  account  is 

given  of  the  methods  pursued  in  the  publication  of  a  great 

American  newspaper,  and  some  hints  are  presented  with 

reference  to  the  qualifications  of  the  successful  journalist. 

This  article  is  illustrated  with  views  of  many  of  the  great 

newspaper  buildings. 

Methods  of  gathering  the  news,  sup.  2188. 

Editorial  departments  of  a  great  newspaper,  sup.  2189. 

Mailing  of  newspapers,  sup.  2189. 

The  Sunday  paper,  sup.  2190. 

Journalism  as  a  profession,  sup.  2191. 

Associated  Press  organization,  sup.  2194. 

Several  other  articles  in  the  Britannica  relate  directly 
or  indirectly  to  this  important  subject.  Among  these 
the  following  are  especially  interesting : 

Acta  Diurna,  I.  128. 


THE   JOURNALIST.  427 

Reporting,  XX.  404;  XXI.  841. 

Advertisements,  I.  177,  178. 

The  article  on  ADVERTISING,  sup.  52,  is  full  of  interest- 
ing facts  relating  to  this  important  department  of  jour- 
nalism, especially  in  America. 

Printing  of  newspapers,  XXIII.  703,  709. 

Laws  relating  to  newspaper  press,  XIX.  710. 

Periodicals,  XVIII.  535. 

History  of  British  periodicals,  XVIII.  536;  of  French 
periodicals,  same  volume,  page  539;  of  American  maga- 
zines and  reviews,  page  544. 

American  magazines,  sup.  1967. 

The  Associated  Press,  sup.  269. 

Censorship  of  the  Press,  III.  658,  659. 

Press  Laws,  XIX.  710-714. 

See  Typography,  in  this  GUIDE. 

FAMOUS   JOURNALISTS. 

Benjamin  Franklin,  IX.  71 1  ;  his  connection  with  Ameri- 
can journalism,  XVII.  433. 

Horace  Greeley,  XI.  160;  XVII.  434. 
Newspaper        George  Ripley,  XX.  567. 

Men-  John  Walter  and  the  "  London  Times,"  sup. 

3077. 

Thurlow  Weed,  sup.  3114. 
William  T.  Stead,  of  the  "  Review   of  Reviews,"   sup. 

2781. 

Granier  de  Cassagnac,  sup.  1440. 
Charles  A.  Dana,  sup.  983. 
Joseph  Gale,  sup.  1358. 
Edwin  L.  Godkin,  sup.  1414. 
Joseph  Pulitzer,  sup.  2476. 
James  Gordon  Bennett,  III.  574. 
James  Gordon  Bennett,  Jr.,  sup.  441. 


428  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

John  W.  Forney,  sup.  1311. 
Henry  T.  Raymond,  sup.  2514. 
Whitelaw  Reid,  sup.  2530. 
Joseph  Medill,  sup.  2029. 
Henry  Watterson,  sup.  3107. 
Allen  Thorndyke  Rice,  sup.  2545. 
John  Russell  Young,  sup.  3223. 

See  The  Writer,  The  Printer,  The  American  Citizen,  and 
Readings  in  the  History  of  Literature,  all  in  this  GUIDE. 


THE  ARTIST.  429 


CHAPTER  LXIII. 

THE    ARTIST. 

"In  framing  an  artist,  art  hath  thus  decreed 
To  make  some  good,  but  others  to  exceed." 

—  Pericles. 

I.    PAINTING. 

A  GENERAL  examination  of  the  place  of  painting  among 

the  FINE  ARTS   will   be  found   in  the  article  under  that 

heading,  Volume  IX.,  page  206.    But  the  most  interesting 

and  by  far   the    most  valuable  article  on  this 

subject   is  that  entitled  :  SCHOOLS  OF  PAINT- 

Painting.       ING'  XXI-  433~448.     This  article  may  be  read 

by     sections,    with     collateral     references     to 

other  articles  and  to  the  notices  of  individual  painters,  as 

indicated  below : 

1.  Classical  School  of  Painting. 

For  the  early  history  of  painting  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  see  Volume  II.,  pages  353,  358,  363,  366. 

See  also  Zeuxis,  XXIV.  783  ;  Parrhasius,  XVIII.  321 ; 
Sicyon,  II.  349;  Apelles,  II.  169. 

2.  Italian  School  of  Painting,  XXI.  433  ;  Giotto,  X.  609  ; 
Masaccio,  XV.  605  ;  Fra  Lippo  Lippi,  XIV.  685  ;  Sandro 
Botticelli,  IV.  165  ;  Michelangelo,  XVI.  229;  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  XXI.    315;  Giorgio    Vasari,  XXJV.    94;  Raphael 
Sanzio,  XX.  274;  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  XIV.  455  ;  Salvator 
Rosa,  XX.  846;  Titian,  XXIII.  413. 

3.  German  School  of  Painting,  XXL  438^  Hans   HoL 
bein,  XII.  53;  Albrecht  Diirer,  VIL  554;  Hans  Holbein, 
the  -younger,    XII.    54;    Anton    Raphael    Mengs,  XVI. 


430  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

10 ;  Julius  Schnorr,   XXI.  416;  Johann  Fried.  Overbeck, 
XVIII.  76;  Wilhelm  von  Kaulbach,XIV.   16. 

4.  Flemish  School   of  Painting,  XXI.  438  ;  Van   Eyck, 
VIII.  814;  Van  der  Weyden,  XXL  439 ;  Hans  Memling, 
XV.  846  ;  Quintin  Matsys,  XV.  620;  Antonio  Moro,  XVI. 
840;  Rubens,  XXI.  41  ;  Vandyck,  XXIV.  59. 

5.  Dutch    School   of    Painting,   XXI.    439 ;    Ruysdael, 
XXI.   114;  Vandevelde,  XXIV.  59;    Paul    Potter,  XIX. 
600;  Hobbema,  XII.  30  ;  Rembrandt,  XX.  373. 

6.  Spanish  School  of   Painting,  XXL  440 ;    Zurbaran, 
XXIV.  829;  Velasquez,  XXIV.  132  ;  Murillo,  XVII.   55  ; 
Goya,  XL  22  ;  Fortuny,  XXI.  443. 

7.  French    School     of    Painting,    XXL   440;    Nicolas 
Poussin,  XIX.  649;    Claude    Lorrain,  V.   814;    Watteau, 
XXIV.  414;  Claude  Vernet,  XXIV.  168  ;  Prud'hon,  XX. 
i;    Horace   Vernet,  XXIV.    169;    Delaroche,  VII.   41; 
Rousseau,  XXL   22;  Millet,  XVI.  321  ;    sup.  2066;  Meis- 
sonier,  sup.  2031;    Regnault,  XX.    346;  Rosa    Bonheur, 
sup.  517. 

Impressionism  in  French  Art,  sup.  1661. 

8.  British  School  of  Painting,  XXL  441  ;  Hogarth,  XII. 
47 ;  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  XX.  502  ;  Gainsborough,  X.  15  ; 
Richard  Wilson,  XXIV.  593  ;    Paul    Sandby,  XXL    257 ; 
Sir  Henry  Raeburn,  XX.  218;    William  Blake,  III.  804; 
Eastlake,    VII.    615;     Sir    Edwin    Landseer,    XIV.    280; 
Holman  Hunt,  sup.   1634;  J.  M.  W.  Turner,  XXIII.  663; 
Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  XX.    857;     E.   J.  Poynter,  sup. 
2434 ;  Burne-Jones,  sup.  628 ;  Sir  Frederic  Leighton,  sup. 
1860;  Sir  John  Millais,  sup.  2065  ;  George  F/  Watts,  sup. 

3107. 

9.  American  Painters:   Thomas  Hill,  sup.   1583;  Win- 
slow    Homer,  sup.   1602  ;    William    M.   Hunt,  sup.   1635  ; 
George  Inness,  sup.   1683;  Eastman  Johnson,  sup.   1747; 
John  La  Farge,  sup.    1821  ;   Will  H.   Lowe,  sup.    1923  ; 


THE   ARTIST.  431 

F.  D.  Millet,  sup.  2067;  Washington  Allston,  sup.  136; 
John  Singleton  Copley,  VI.  347  ;  Benjamin  West,  XXIV. 
505  ;  John  S.  Sargent,  sup.  2632. 

II.    PROCESSES   OF    PAINTING. 

Materials  used  in  Painting,  XVIII.  137. 

Painting   in    water-colors,   XVIII.    139,   and 
Kinds  XjX    86 

Painting  Enamel — On  metal,  VIII.  182;  in  jewelry, 

XIII.  679  ;  in  pottery,  XIX.  601. 

Encaustic  painting,  VIII.  185. 

Genre -painting,  sup.  1379 

Fresco,  IX.  769. 

Raphael's  frescos,  XX.  278. 

Glass-painting,  X.  667. 

Aureola,  III.  89. 

Tempera,  XXIII.  157. 

Illumination,  XII.  707. 

Mural  Decoration,  XVII.  34-48  (a  beautifully  illus- 
trated article). 

Wall-painting,  XVII.  39-48. 

Miniatures,  XVI.  437. 

III.   SCULPTURE. 

For  the  history  of  Greek  and  Roman  sculpture,  see  the 

article  on  CLASSICAL  ARCHEOLOGY,  II.  343; 

Hlosftory       also  Phidias,   XVIII.    733;    Polycletus,  XIX. 

Sculpture.     4*6;   Scopas,   II.   360;  Praxiteles,  XIX.    660; 

Lysippus,  XV.  120;  Arcesilaus,  II.  326. 

Assyrian  Sculpture,  III.  190. 

Etrurian  Art,  VIII.  639. 

Early  Christian  Sculpture,  XXI.  556. 

English  Sculpture,  XXI.  557;  John  Flaxman,  IX.  298; 
Francis  Chantrey,  V.  395  ;  Alfred  Stevens,  XXI.  561. 


432  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

French  Sculpture,  XXI.  562;  Jean  Antoine  Hou- 
don,  XII.  314;  Frangois  Rude,  XXI.  50;  David,  VI. 
842. 

German  Sculpture,  XXI.  564;  Vischer,  XVII.  633  ; 
Schliiter,  XXI.  566;  Albert  Wolff,  XXI.  566. 

Spanish  Sculpture,  XXI.  566. 

Italian  Sculpture,  XXI.  567;  Pisani,  XIX.  122  ;  Dona- 
tello,  VII.  350;  Orcagna,  XVII.  814;  Ghiberti,  X.  566; 
Michelangelo,  XVI.  230;  Raphael,  XX.  281;  Giovanni 
da  Bologna,  XXI.  569 ;  Benvenuto  Cellini,  V.  294 ;  Ber- 
nini, III.  604;  Canova,  V.  24. 

Venetian  Sculpture,  XXIV.  156;  Veronese,  XXIV.  172. 

Scandinavian  Sculpture,  XXI.  570;  Thorwaldsen, 
XXIII.  315. 

American  Sculpture  :  Hiram  Powers,  XIX.  650  ;  Thomas 
Crawford,  VI.  554;  Horatio  Greenough,  XI.  173;  Henry 
Kirke  Brown,  I.  352,  sup.  588;  W.  W.  Story,  sup.  2796; 
Harriet  Hosmer,  sup.  1618  ;  John  Rogers,  sup.  2565  ;  Lar- 
kin  G.  Mead,  sup.  2022  ;  Augustus  St.  Gaudens,  sup.  2603  ; 
R.  S.  Greenough,  sup.  1464 ;  Clark  Mills,  sup.  2067  ;  Fred- 
erick McMonnies,  sup.  1962. 

Technical  methods  of  sculpture  (how  a  piece  of  statuary 
is  made),  XXI.  571. 

Alto  relievo,  I.  643. 

Relief,  IX.  205;  relief  in  wall  decorations,  XVII.  34; 
relations  of  sculpture  to  the  Fine  Arts,  IX.  205. 

IV.    POTTERY,    ETC. 

The  special  article  on  this  subject,  XIX.  600-643,  is  one 

of  much  interest,  amply  and  beautifully   illus- 

Pottery        trated.     The  article  on  Ceramic  Art,  sup.  734, 

Ulu 

Porcelain      describes  the  development  of  this  art  since  1880, 

and  is  replete  with  interesting  facts. 
Prehistoric  pottery,  XIX.  602. 


THE   ARTIST. 

Egyptian  pottery,  XIX.  603. 

Assyrian,  XIX.  604. 

Phoenician,  XIX.  605. 

Hellenic,  XIX.  611. 

Etruscan,  XIX.  615. 

Graeco-Roman  and  Roman,  XIX.  617. 

Persian  and  Moslem,  XIX.  619. 

Teutonic  and  Saxon,  XIX.  623. 

Mediaeval,  XIX.  624. 

Majolica-ware,  XIX.  624. 

Spanish  and  Portuguese,  XIX.  628. 

French,  XIX.  629. 

Bernard  Palissy,  XVIII.  186. 

Mediaeval  German-ware,  XIX.  630. 

English,  XIX.  631. 

Josiah  Wedgwood,  XXIV.  476. 

Ancient  Mexican-ware,  XIX.  633. 

Chinese  porcelain,  XIX.  633. 

Japanese  pottery,  XIII.  454. 

Sevres-ware,  XIX.  637. 

Dresden-ware,  XIX.  639. 

English  porcelain,  XIX.  640. 

Terra-cotta,  XXIII.  190;  Assyrian  terra-cotta,  II.  399; 
Etruscan,  VIII.  641  ;  Japanese,  XII.  599. 

Tiles,  XXII.  387;  encaustic  tiles,  VIII.  187 ;  for  wall- 
linings,  XVII.  36. 

Mosaic-work,  XVI.  849 ;  of  Egyptians  and  Romans, 
XVI.  850;  of  the  Middle  Ages,  XVI.  852. 

V.    METAL-WORK. 

Metal-work  as  an  ornamental  art,  XVI.  71. 
Metal-work  of  Greece,  XVI.  73. 
Of  Italy,  XVI.  74. 
Of  England,  XVI.  76. 

28 


434  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Of  Germany,  XVI.  77. 

Brasses,  IV.  219;  VII.  694. 

Bronze-work,  XVI.  71. 
Bronzes         Japanese  bronze-work,  XIII.  591. 

Chinese  bronze-work,  IV.  366. 
Venetian  bronze-work,  XXIV.  156. 
Iron-work  in  architecture,  II.  466. 
Hammered  metal-work,  XVI.  72. 
Damaskeening,  VI.  793. 

VI.    WOOD-WORK. 

Wood-carving,  XXIV.  644  (a  six-page  illustrated  article 
treating  mainly  of  ancient  and  mediaeval  work). 
Wood-  Wood-carving  in  Switzerland,  XXII.  779. 

carving.  Buhl-WOrk,  IV.  446. 

Inlaying,  XIII.  81. 
Marquetry,  IX.  849. 

VII.    PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Special  article  on  Photography,  XVIII.  821-840,  with 
supplement  giving  an  account  of  the  most  recent 

Progress      improvements  and  discoveries,  sup.  2370.     See 
of  Photog-       . 
raphy.  als°  : 

Daguerre,  VI.  761. 

Niepce,  XVII.  495- 
Photogravure,  XXII.  717. 
Photo-engraving,  XVIII.  834. 
Photolithography,  XVIII.  833,  834. 
Camera,  IV.  740,  741  ;  XVIII.  839;  sup.  664. 
Instantaneous  photography,  sup.  2371. 
Photographs  in  natural  colors,  sup.  2372. 
Woodburytypes,  sup.  3186. 
Albertypes,  sup.  2374. 
Artotypes,  sup.  258. 


THE   ARTIST.  435 

Photochronograph,  sup.  2370,  2373. 
Dry  plates,  sup.  2371. 
Plantinotypes  and  kallitypes,  sup.  2376. 
Astronomical  photography,  sup.  2376. 
Rontgen  or  X  rays,  sup.  2372,  2574. 

VIII.    ENGRAVING. 

Special  article  on  Engraving,  VIII.  435.     A  valuable 
supplementary  article   on  engraving,  giving  an 
History      account  of  the  latest  advancement  made  in  the 
Engraving     art>  mav  be  found  in  sup.   1204-1206.     Wood- 
engraving,  VIII.  436  ;  early  engraving  on  wood, 
V.  99;  in  time  of  Albrecht  Durer,  VII.  554;  Bewick,  III. 
621. 

Copper  and  steel  plate  engraving,  VIII.  439  ;  Mantegna, 
XV.  501;  Audran,  III.  70;  Ferdinand  Gaillard,  VIII. 

443- 

Half-tone  process,  sup.  1205. 
Wax  process,  sup.  1206. 
Etching,  VIII.  443- 
Mezzotint,  VIII.  445. 
Lithography,  sup.  1896. 

IX.    MISCELLANEOUS. 

•  Drawing,  VII.  446-451.  Beginning  on  page  448,  the 
article  is  an  interesting  and  very  readable 
Drawing.  critique  on  the  art  of  delineation  as  practiced 
by  different  artists  and  in  different  countries. 

Illumination  of  written  or  printed  texts,  XII.  707  ;  illu- 
minated borders  of  books,  XXIII.  696. 

Illuminated  manuscripts,  VI.  45  ;  XII.  797. 

Caricature,  V.  103. 

Arabesques,  I.  233. 

Embossing,  VIII,  160. 


43°"  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Stamped  leather  for  wall-decoration,  XVII.  37. 
Embroidery,  VIII.  160. 
*    Gilding,  X.  593. 
Etching,  VIII.  443. 
Lacquer-work,  XIV.  194. 
Lapidary,  XIV.  298. 

Cameo,  IV.  738;  cameos  of  mediaeval  times, 
Ornamen-      IV.  739. 
tation.  Work  in  ivory,  XIII.  520. 

Jewelry,  XIII.  675-679. 
Decalcomania,  sup.  1007. 

X.    ILLUSTRATORS. 

George  Cruikshank,  sup.  955. 
Frank  O.  Darley,  sup.  986. 
Gustave  Dore,  sup.  1067. 
George  du  Maurier,  sup.  1092. 
Mary  Hallock  Foote,  sup.  1304. 
"Alfred  Crowquill,"  sup.  1312. 
Harry  Furniss,  sup.  1353. 
Charles  D.  Gibson,  sup.  1394. 
William  Hamilton  Gibson,  sup.  1394. 
Bernhard  Gillam,  sup.  1398. 
Kate  Greenaway,  sup.  1461. 
Augustus  Hoppin,  sup.  1613. 
Thomas  Nast,  sup.  2138. 
Joseph  Pennell,  sup.  2337. 
Charles  S.  Reinhart,  sup.  2530. 
Frederic  Remington,  sup.  2531. 
See  Art  Unions,  sup.  258. 


THE   MUSICIAN.  437 

CHAPTER  LXIV. 

THE    MUSICIAN. 
"  Such  sweet  compulsion  doth  in  music  lie." — Milton. 

ALTHOUGH  America  has  not  yet  produced  a  great  com- 
poser of  music,  it  has  nevertheless  a  copious  and  impor- 
tant musical  history.  The  article  on  Music  IN  AMERICA, 
sup.  2128,  wherein  this  history  is  narrated,  will  therefore 
be  read  with  great  interest,  and  doubtless  also  with  profit, 
by  every  American  musician  who  wishes  to  know  anything 
about  the  origin  and  progress  of  music  in  his  own  country. 

In  the  seventeenth  volume  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nica  (pages  77-102),  Professor  Macfarren,  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge,  presents  a  scholarly  and  comprehensive 
history  of  music,  tracing  its  progress  through  western  civ- 
ilization, and  showing  how  it  has  been  changed  from  an 
artificial  or  calculated  form  to  a  natural  or  spon- 
taneous. This  article  not  only  appeals  especial- 
Music  ty  to  musicians  and  students  of  music,  but  it 
contains  much  that  will  interest  the  casual 
reader.  It  may  be  taken  as  the  basis  of  a  short  course  of 
study  on  this  subject.  It  may  be  read  in  sections  in  con- 
nection with  other  special  articles,  as  follows : 

Origin  of  musical  instruments,  page  77.  (See  list  of 
musical  instruments  below.) 

Musical  intervals,  XVII.  78,  103. 

Affinity  of  music  to  astronomy,  XVII.  78.  See  Pythago- 
ras, XX.  137. 

Antiphony,  XVII.  79;  also  II.  134. 

Scales,  XVII.  80. 


43$  GUIDE. TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Time  in  music,  sup.  2915. 
Tone  in  music,  sup.  2926. 

Harmony,  XVII.  81.    Special  article  on,  VII.  593.  The 
principles  of  harmony  are  treated   still   further 

in  part  IV.  of  the  article  Acoustics,  I.  107. 
Harmony.  •    ,.    VITTT    o 

Counterpoint,  XVII.  82. 

Academies  of  music,   XVII.   83.       See    also 
ACADEMY,  I.  78,  and  CONSERVATORY,  VI.  291. 

Troubadours,  XVII.  83  ;  also  VII.  413  ;  Minstrel,  XVI. 

479- 

Madrigal,  XV.  192. 

Oratorio,  XVII.  85-100;  also  Handel's  XL  435;  Hay- 
dn's, XI.  549;  Mendelssohn's,  XVI.  8;  in  America,  sup. 
2130. 

Hymns,  XVII.  85  ;  also  the  special  article  on  this  sub- 
ject, XII.  577. 

Psalmody  in  America,  sup.  2129. 

Choral  tunes,  XVII.  85. 

Opera,  XVII.  87,  99.  See  Scarlatti,  XXL  375  ;  Lully, 
XV.  63  ;  Wagner,  XXIV.  313. 

Cantata,  XVII.  88. 

Symphony,  XVII.  95. 

Among  the  many  other  articles  on  musical  subjects  the 
following  are  of  especial  interest : 

Voice,  and  vocal  music,  XXIV.  273. 

Plain  song  or  chant,  XIX.  168. 

Vocal        Anthem,  II.  102. 
Music.       Agnus  Dei,  I.  284. 

Almai  (Egyptian  singers),  I.  592. 

Glee,  X.  677. 

Minuet,  XVI.  492. 

Scientific  basis  of  music,  XVII.  102-106  (a  scholarly 
article  by  Professor  Bosanquet,  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Music,  London). 


THE    MUSICIAN.  439 

MUSICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 

Drum,  VII.  479. 

Flute,  IX.  350. 

Transverse  flute,  XXIII.  519. 

Flageolet,  IX.  351. 

Bassoon,  III.  425. 

Lyre,  XV.  113. 

^Eolian  harp,  I.  182,  and  sup.  54. 

Harp,  XL  488. 

Lute,  XV.  70. 

Violin,  XXIV.  242. 

Banjo,  sup.  337. 

Hornpipe,  XII.  171. 

French  horn,  XII.  167. 

Dulcimer,  sup.  1091. 

Oboe,  or  hautboy,  XVII.  705. 

Trumpet,  XXIII.  592. 

Trombone,  XXIII.  586. 

Ophicleide,  XVII.  705. 

Organ,  XVII.  828-839. 

Barrel-organs,  sup.  361. 

Pianoforte,  XIX.  64-78. 

MUSICIANS   AND   COMPOSERS. 

These  are  so  numerous  that  we  shall   attempt  to  name 
only  a  few  of  the  most  famous.     Reference  to  others  may 
easily  be  made  by  consulting  the  Index  volume. 
Jenny  Lind,  XIV.  662,  sup.  1419. 
'Adelina  Patti,  sup.  2325. 
Singers.         Parepa  Rosa,  sup.  2576. 

Emma  Eames,  sup.  2795. 
Clara  Louise  Kellogg,  sup.  2798. 
Nellie  Melba,  sup.  2032. 


44°  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Beethoven,  III.  504. 
Mendelssohn,  XVI.  6. 
Handel,  XI.  433. 

Haydn,  XI.  538. 
Composers.        Franz  Liszt,  sup.  1895. 

Moscheles,  XVI.  222. 
Czerny,  VI.  755. 
Lully,  XV.  63". 
Johann  Strauss,  sup.  2798. 
Meyerbeer,  XVI.  6. 
Wagner,  XXIV.  313. 
Weber,  XXIV.  467. 
Brahms,  sup.  546. 
Scarlatti,  XXI.  375. 
Rubinstein,  sup.  2586. 

Paderewski,  sup.  2279. 
Pianists.  Tschaikowsky,  sup.  2954. 

Gottschalk,  sup.  1431,  2131. 
Antonin  Dvorak,  sup.  noo. 
Moritz  Rosenthal,  sup.  2578. 
Lowell  Mason,  sup.  1009,  2130. 

Theodore  Thomas,  sup.  2131,  2897. 
Directors.          Leopold  Damrosch,  sup.  2131. 

Dudley  Buck,  sup.  605,  2132. 
Reginald  de  Koven,  sup.  605,  2132. 
Anton  Seidl,  sup.  2678. 
Remenyi,  sup.  2531. 

Paganini,  XVIII.  134. 

Corelli,  VI.  394. 
Violinists.  TTTTT 

Ernst,  VIII.  527. 

Ole  Bull,  sup.  615. 

Violin-makers :  Stradivari,  XXIV.  245  ;  Amati,  I.  654. 
See  Cremona,  VI.  567,  and  XVII.  98. 


THE  ACTOR   AND   DRAMATIST.  441 


CHAPTER  LXV. 

THE   ACTOR  AND   DRAMATIST. 
"  The  best  actors  in  the  world,  either  for  tragedy,  comedy." — Hamlet. 

THE  word  drama  is  from  the  Greek  drao,  meaning 
action.  The  invention  of  dramatic  art  is  the  direct  out- 
come of  a  universal  quality  of  human  nature — the  desire  to 
imitate.  Aristotle  says  that  this  desire  is  in- 
The  stinctive  in  man  from  his  infancy.  Children  are 

Drama.  perpetually  going  out  of  themselves  ;  it  is  one 
of  their  chief  amusements  to  represent  those 
grown  people  whom  they  have  had  an  opportunity  of  ob- 
serving, or  whatever  strikes  their  fancy  ;  "  and,  with  the 
happy  pliancy  of  their  imagination,  they  can  exhibit  all 
the  characteristics  of  any  dignity  they  may  choose  to 
assume,  be  it  that  of  a  father,  a  schoolmaster,  or  a  king." 
Here,  then,  is  the  first  step  towards  the  invention  of  the 
dramatic  art.  Imitation  of  action  by  action,  however 
simple  and  unpremeditated,  is  a  drama  in  embryo.  The 
business  of  the  dramatist  is  to  invent  this  action  and  to 
mould  it  into  a  form  sanctioned  by  the  laws  of  literature. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  actor  to  present  this  action  in  its 
concrete  form,  agreeably  to  the  laws  of  histrionic  art. 
The  actor  is  only  the  temporary  interpreter  of  the 
dramatist, 

The  history  of  the  drama,  which  includes  both  dramatic 

-literature  and  its  presentation  on   the  stage,  is 

History.        a  subject  very  interesting  not  only  to  all  actors 

and  dramatists,  but  to  students  of  literature  and 

art  and  humanity,  and  even  to  "  the  general  reader." 

The  Encyclopedia  Britannica  presents  that  history  in  a 


442  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

form  adapted  to  the  convenience  of  all  who  care  to  peruse 
it,  while  its  various  related  topics  are  so  grouped  and  ar- 
ranged as  to  afford  every  convenience  for  ready  consulta- 
tion. The  following  references,  including  the  entire  his- 
tory of  the  drama  and  of  dramatic  representation,  will 
point  the  way  to  several  courses  of  systematic  reading : 

I.    HISTORY   OF   THE   DRAMA. 

Egyptian  drama,  VII.  403. 

Chinese  drama,  VII.  400. 

Hindoo  drama,  VII.  396. 

The  Sakuntald  of  Kalidasa,  XIII.  828  ;  VII.  397. 

The  Greek  drama,  VII.  403,  comprised  two  great  divi- 
sions, tragedy  and  comedy. 

The  traditional  inventor  of  tragedy  was  Thespis,  VII. 
404  ;  hence  the  expression  Thespian  art,  so  often  used  to 
designate  dramatic  art. 

Tragedy  was  defined  by  Plato  as  an  imitation 
Greek  of  the  noblest  life. 

Drama.  Comedy  had  its  origin  in  sport ;  it  was  "  the 

village    song,"  the  rustic  jest,  and  formed  the 
most  complete  contrast  to  tragedy. 

Origin  of  tragedy,  XI.  140. 

The  great  masters  of  Greek  tragedy  were  y£schylus, 
I.  208,  VII.  403  ;  Sophocles,  XXII.  271  ;  and  Euripides, 
VIII.  673,  XI.  140. 

The  construction  of  the  Greek  tragedy  was  essentially 
different  from  that  of  the  modern  play.  See  VII.  406. 

Origin  of  comedy,  VII.  407. 

The  master  of  Greek  comedy,  although  by  no  means 
its  inventor,  was  Aristophanes,  II.  507.  He  was  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  Old  Comedy,  the  distinctive  features  of 
which  are  described  in  VII.  407. 


THE   ACTOR  AND   DRAMATIST.  443 

Of  the  Middle  and  the  New  Comedies,  the  greatest 
names  are  those  of  Eubulus  and  Menander,  XVI.  2. 

The  Attic  drama,  represented  by  the  great  names  just 
mentioned,  had  its  origin  in  religion,  VII.  408.  Its  reli- 
gious character  had  much  to  do  in  modifying  its  rep- 
resentation upon  the  stage. 

The  Roman  Drama — its  origin,  VII.  409. 

Livius  Andronicus,  who  was  both  dramatist  and  actor, 
produced  the  first  regular  Roman  tragedy  and  the  first 
great  Roman  comedy,  XIV.  723,  VII.  410.  Other  trage- 
dians were  : 

Cnaeus  Naevius,  XVII.  161. 
Roman          Quintus  Ennius,  VIII.  447 ;  XX.  717. 

Drama.  Lucius  Accius,  I.  83. 

Lucius  Annseus  Seneca,  XXI.  658. 

Of  the  writers  of  Latin  comedy  the  greatest  names  are 
T.  Maccius  Plautus,  XIX.  215. 
Terence,  XXIII.  186;  XVI.  2. 

With  the  triumph  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  4th 
century,  the  Roman  drama  came  to  an  end,  VII.  412. 

The  Christian  drama  had  its  origin  in  dramatic  com- 
positions written  doubtless  for  educational  purposes  as 
early  as  the  5th  century. 

St.  Gregory  Nazianzus,  XI.  179;  VII.  412. 
Hrotsvitha,  XII.  326. 

Mystery-plays,  VII.  412. 
Mediaeval  Miracle-plays,  V.  324. 

Plays.  Moralities,  VIII.  416;  VII.  413. 

Passion-play  of  Oberammergau,  XVII.  703. 

The  English  drama  was  the  offshoot  of  the  miracle- 
plays  and  moralities  which  survived  even  after  the  regular 


444  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

tragedy   and  comedy  of   the    modern    stage    had    begun 

their  course. 

English  The    first    tragedy    proper   in    the    English 

Drama.         tongue   was    Gorboduc,    by  Thomas   Sackville, 
Lord  Buckhurst,  VIII.  416. 

The  earliest  English  comedy  now  extant  was  Ralph 
Roister  Doister,  by  Nicholas  Udall,  XXIII.  716. 

"  Out  of  such  promises  as  these  the  glories  of  our 
drama  were  ripened  by  the  warmth  and  light  of  the  great 
Elizabethan  age."  Of  the  Elizabethan  dramatists,  the 
following  are  the  most  famous : 

John  Lyly,  VII.  429;  XV.  103. 

Thomas  Kyd,  XXI.  463. 

Christopher  Marlowe,  XV.  556. 

George  Peele,  XVIII.  457. 

Robert  Greene,  XL  163. 

Thomas  Lodge,  XIV.  767;  XVIII.  346. 

Thomas  Nash,  XVII.  236. 

WILLIAM  SHAKESPEARE,  XXI.  737.  (See  Index,  page 
401.) 

Ben  Jonson,  XIII.  741. 

John  Webster,  VII.  432. 

Francis  Beaumont,  III.  469. 

John  Fletcher,  XVIII.  347. 

Philip  Massinger,  XV.  618. 

The  Puritans  and  the  Drama,  VII.  434. 

Milton's  Comusy  XVI.  326. 

Sir  William  Davenant,  VI.  835. 

Drama  of  the  Restoration,  VII.  434,  435. 
John  Dryden,  VII.  488  ;  VIII.  423. 
William  Wycherley,  XXIV.  705. 


THE   ACTOR   AND   DRAMATIST.  445 

William  Congreve,  VI.  271. 
Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  XXIV.  54. 

Drama  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  VII.  435-438. 

Addison's  Cato,  VIII.  425,  426;  VII.  435. 

Home's  Douglas,  XII.  107. 

Allan  Ramsay's  Gentle  Sheplicrd,  XX.  266. 

Gay's  Beggar  s  Opera,  X.  119. 

Henry  Fielding's  comedies,  IX.  142  ;  VIII.  430. 

Goldsmith's  comedies,  X.  760;  VII.  435. 

Sheridan's  comedies,  VII.  438  ;  XXI.  797. 

Drama  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  VII.  438,  439. 
Byron's  Manfred,  IV.  604  ;  VII.  438. 
Shelley's  The  C end,  VIII.  433;  XXL  789. 
Bulwer-Lytton's  Richelieu,  XV.  121. 

Modern  Italian  Drama,  VII.  416-417. 
Cinthio's  Hecatommithi,  X.  620. 

Marquis  S.  Maffei,  XV.  196. 
Italian  Alfieri,  I.  502. 

Drama.         Manzoni,  XV.  514. 

Ariosto's  comedies,  VII.  418. 
Guarini's  Pastor  Fido,  XI.  236. 
Goldoni,  X.  759  ;  XIII.  513. 

The  Spanish  Drama,  XXII.  356,  358;  VII.  419. 
Cervantes,  XXII.  356  ;  V.  347. 

Lope    de     Vega,     XXII.     357;    VII.    420; 

Spanish  XXIV.   121. 

Drama.  Calderon  de  la  Barca,  XXII.  359  ;  IV.  659^ 

Moreto,  VII.  422  ;  XVI.  821. 
Cienfuegos,  V.  775. 
Bartolome  Torres  Naharro,  XXII.  356, 


446  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

The  French  Drama,  VII.  423. 

Bible-plays,  IX.  647  ;  miracle-plays,  IX.  648. 

Stephen  Jodelle,  VII.  423  ;  XX.  841. 

The  Classical  Drama,  IX.  654. 

Robert  Gamier,  VII.  423. 

Corneille,VII.  424;  IX.  655. 

Racine,  IX.  663. 

Voltaire,  XXIV.  285  ;  IX.  670. 

Moliere,  IX.  659;  XVI.  624. 

French  Victor  Hugo,  VII.  427;    IX.  676. 

Drama.         Minor  dramatists,  IX.  660. 

Dramatists  of  the  Empire,  IX.  676. 
Victorien  Sardou,  sup.  2631. 
Theatre  Fran£ais,  sup.  2888. 

The  German  Drama,  X.  529;  VII.  440. 

Lessing,  VII.  441  ;  X.  536. 

German        "  Sturm  und  Drang,"  VII.  442  ;  X.  540. 
Drama.         Goethe,  X.  537,  721  ;  VII.  442. 

Schiller,  XXI.  395  ;  X.  538. 
Hans  Sachs,  X.  528;  Gustav  Freytag,  X.  541. 
The  Romantic  School,  VII.  443 
Later  dramatists,  X.  545. 

The  Dutch  Drama,  XII.  91,96. 
Dutch          Hooft,  XII.  93,  146. 
Drama.         Van  den  Vondel,  VII.  444;  XII.  94. 

Maurice  Maeterlinck  (Belgium),  sup.  1966. 

The  Scandinavian  Drama,  XXI.  754;  XVII.  596;  VI I.  92. 
Holberg,  XII.  56. 
Oehlenschlager,  XVII.  730. 
Bjornstjerne  Bjornson,  XVII.  591. 
Henrik  Ibsen,  XVII.  591. 


THE  ACTOR  AND   DRAMATIST.  447 

II.   THE   THEATRE. 

By  this  word  we  have  reference  to  a  place  specially 
devised  for  dramatic  representations.  See  the  following 
articles  or  parts  of  articles  in  the  Encyclopedic  Britannica  : 

The  Greek  theatre,  its  invention  and  plan,  XXIII.  222  ; 

11.413- 

Dionysiac  Theatre  at  Athens,  III.  3. 

The  Roman  theatre,  VII.  411  ;  XXIII.  223  ;  II.  419. 

Amphitheatre,  X.  65  ;  I.  774. 

Colosseum,  II.  419;  XXIII.  420. 

Early  English  theatres,  VII.  428;    XXIII. 
Theatres. 

224. 

Blackfriars  Theatre,  VIII.  419. 
Globe  Theatre,  XXI.  761. 
Theatres  of  Paris,  XXIII.  225  ;  XVIII.  277. 
Drury  Lane  Theatre,  XXIII.  226. 
Theatres  of  New  York,  XVII.  461. 
Chinese  theatres,  V.  666. 

The  stage  in  Greek  theatres,  VII.  408. 

TheSta  e  *"  ^°man  tneatres>  VII.  41 1. 

In  early  English  theatres,  VIII.  420. 

In  modern  theatres,  XXIII.  22-6. 
Costumes  and  scenery,  XXIII.  225. 
Masks  in  Greek  tragedy,  VII.  408. 
The  cothurnus,  VII.  408. 
The  Coventry-plays,  VII.  414. 
Pageants,  VII.  416. 
Masques,  VII.  431. 

III.    ACTORS   AND   ACTING. 

The  Histrionic  Art,  VII.  396  ;  IX.  209. 
Actors:    Greek,  VII.  408;  Roman,  VII.  411  ;  Hindu, 
VII.  399  ;  English,  VII.  434,  439  ;  Chinese,  VII.  402. 
Livius  Andronicus,  XIV.  723. 


448  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Richard  Burbage,  XXI.  761. 

David  Garrick,  X.  83. 

Mrs.  Sarah  Siddons,  XXII.  32. 

JohnKemble,  XIV.  31. 

Fanny  Kemble,  sup.  17/8. 

Edmund  Kean,  XIV.  21. 

William  Charles  Macready,  XV.  167. 

Barton  Booth,  IV.  48. 

Edwin  Booth,  sup.  521. 

Lawrence  Barrett,  sup.  362. 

Dion  Boucicault,  sup.  531. 

Ernesto  Rossi,  sup.  2579. 

Anna  Cora  Mowatt,  sup.  2553. 

Edwin  Forrest,  sup.  1312. 

Joseph  Jefferson,  sup.  1738. 

Charlotte  Cushman,  sup.  971. 

Mary  Anderson,  sup.  2144. 

Richard  Mansfield,  sup.  1984. 

Maggie  Mitchell,  sup.  2085. 

Fanny  Davenport,  sup.  992. 

Clara  Morris,  sup.  2110. 

Sir  Henry  Irving,  sup.  1715. 

Ellen  Terry,  sup.  2881. 

Helena  Modjeska,  sup.  2087. 

Lilian  Neilson,  sup.  2158. 

In  general,  the  names  and  biographies  of  all  the  most 
popular  actors  on  the  American  stage  may  be  found  by 
consulting  the  American  supplements  to  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica. 

IV.   THE   ART   OF   DRAMATIC   COMPOSITION. 

See  VII.  390-396. 

In  the  first  place,  a  dramatic  action  must  possess  unity. 
See  VII.  390;  XVI.  81. 


THE  ACTOR   AND   DRAMATIST.  449 

It  must  be  complete.     See  VII.  391. 
Prologues  and  epilogues,  VII.  392. 
See  Chorus  in  Greek  Drama,  XVII.  79. 
Climax  and  catastrophe,  VII.  393. 
Characterization,  VII.  394. 
Consistency,  VII.  394. 
Tragedy  and  comedy,  VII.  395. 
Gesture,  speech,  costume,  VII.  396. 


450  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

CHAPTER  LXVI. 

THE   HOME-MAKER. 

"Our  books,  gardens,  family,  scenery,  might  all  bring  forth  to  us 
far  greater  wealth  of  enjoyment  and  improvement  if  we  tried  to  squeeze 
the  very  utmost  out  of  them." — Charles  Buxton. 

"A  home  without  books  is  like  a  room  without  windows." — Henry 
Ward  Beecher. 

THE  Britannica  would  be  lacking  in  completeness  if  it 
did  not  contain  a  number  of  practical  articles  on  topics 
of  domestic  interest  and  utility.  An  examination  of  any 
single  volume  will  show  that  it  is  not  in  the  least  deficient 
in  this  respect.  To  any  person  having  in  charge  the  af- 
fairs of  a  home  or  a  family,  this  great  work  offers  a  variety 
of  useful  information  that  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  simi- 
lar publication. 

A.   THE   HOUSEHOLD. 

Do  you  think  of  building  a  house  for  yourself  ?  See  the 
article  on  Building,  IV.  447.  Consult,  also,  the 
House-  supplementary  article  on  American  Architec- 
building.  ture,  sup.  218  ;  and  notice  the  practical  refer- 
ences in  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Builder,  in 
this  GUIDE.  Then  refer  to  the  following  valuable  arti- 
cles, or  parts  of  articles  : 

Sanitation  of  the  house,  XII.  567. 

Progress  in  American  sanitary  science,  sup.  2402. 

Ventilation  of  the  house,  XII.  567;  ventilation  by 
chimneys,  XXIV.  160. 

Sewerage,  XXI.  711  ;  sup.  2403. 

Plumbing,  IV.  502  ;  sup.  2402. 


THE   HOME-MAKER.  451 

Water-closets,  XXI.  716. 

Water-pipes,  XXII.  484. 

Paper-hangings,  IV.  512. 

Japanese  paper-hangings,  XIII.  591. 

Tapestry,  XXIII.  21 1. 

Heating  apparatus,  XI.  590;  XXIV.  161  ;  sup.  1352. 

Stoves,  XXII.  579. 

The  latest  improvements  in  cook-stoves,  sup.  2796. 

FURNISHING. 

After  the  house  has  been  built,  other  questions  will  pre- 
sent themselves,  and  the  following  articles  in  the  Britan- 
nica  will  be  read  with  interest : 

Furniture,  IX.  847. 

Bed,  sup.  396. 

Chairs,  IX.  849. 

Carpets,  V.  127. 

Mural  decoration,  XVII.  34. 

FOODS. 

The  busy  housewife,  upon  whose  wisdom  and  discretion 
so  much  of  the  family  happiness  depends,  will  find  a  vast 
fund  of  information,  and  often  some  valuable  practical 
suggestions,  in  such  articles  as  these : 

Cooking-stoves,  XXII.  579. 

Cookery,  VI.  331. 

Adulteration  of  foods,  I.  169. 

Cookery  among  the  Arabs,  II.  251. 

Baking,  III.  250-258. 

Baking-powder,  sup.  323. 

Food,  sup.  1298. 

Dairy  foods,  VI.  768. 

Table  showing  the  composition  of  different  foods,  sup. 
1298. 


452  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Milk,  XVI.  301. 

Cream,  XVI.  303. 

Butter,  IV.  590. 

Cheese,  V.  455. 

Coffee,  VI.  1 10. 

Tea,  XXIII.  97. 

Chocolate,  V.  680. 

Lard,  XIV.  312. 

Use  of  salt  in  food,  sup.  1301. 

Sugar,  XXII.  622. 

Sugar  in  the  United  States,  sup.  1988,  2818. 

Honey,  XII.  136. 

Gelatine,  X.  130. 

Gluten,  X.  695. 

Preserved  foods,  XIX,  707. 

Jelly,  as  conserve  of  fruit,  XIII.  564. 

Tinned  foods,  XIX.  708. 

Arrowroot,  II.  631. 

Canned  fruit,  sup.  703. 

Macaroni,  XV.  125. 

Flour,  IX.  343. 

Nutritive  lichens,  Iceland  moss,  etc.,  XIV.  559. 

Curry,  VI.  715. 

Cinnamon,  V.  785. 

Nutmeg,  XVII.  666  (illustrated). 

Allspice,  XIX.  97. 

Pepper,  XVIII.  516;  cayenne,  V.  280. 

Confectionery,  VI.  256. 

Aerated  waters,  I.  184. 

Mineral  waters,  XV.  431. 

Ice,  XII.  611. 

Read  the  valuable  article  on  dietetics,  VII.  200. 
Digestion  of  foods,  sup.  1299. 


THE   HOME-MAKER.  453 

Diet  in  sickness,  VII.  205. 

The  uses  of  water  in  dietetics,  XXIV.  399. 

Dietetics.         Meals,  VII.  209. 

Plutarch  on  dietetics,  VI.  181. 
Lord  Combermere's  rules,  VI.  181. 

HOUSEHOLD   NECESSITIES   AND    UTENSILS. 

Candles,  IV.  802. 

Lamps,  XIV.  244. 

Sewing-machines,  XXI.  718. 

Needles,  XVII.  313. 

Pins,  XIX.  97. 

Thread,  VI.  502. 

Combs,  VI.  177. 

Brushes,  IV.  403. 

Looking-glasses,  IX.  849. 

Pottery  (see  page  432,  of  this  GUIDE). 

Cups,  XIX.  1 80. 

EMERGENCIES. 

What  to  do  in  case  of  asphyxiation,  II.  716. 

Antidotes  to  poisons,  XIX.  276. 

What  to  do  in  case  of  burns,  XXII.  68 1. 

Burns  and  scalds,  sup.  629. 

Some  rules  for  the  care  of  the  sick,  VII.  205. 

Other  topics  will  suggest  themselves  to  every  intelligent 
housekeeper,  and  these  may  generally  be  found  by  refer- 
ring to  the  Index  volume. 

See,  also,  the  chapters  in  this  GUIDE  entitled,  respec- 
tively, The  Farmer,  The  Gardener,  The  Physician,  and 
The  Fruit  Grower. 


454  GUIDE  TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

B.    SOCIAL   LIFE. 
DRESS. 

A  long  list  of  articles  on  subjects  connected  with  the 
social  life  of  the  home  might  be  given  here.  The  follow- 
ing will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  their  number  and  variety  : 

Costume  :  In  Volume  VI.,  page  453,  there  is  a  complete 
history  of  dress,  with  illustrations. 

Gloves,  X.  692. 

Girdles,  X.  622. 

Shoes,  XXI.  830;  boots,  sup.  522. 

Hats,  XI.  518. 

Ribbons,  XX.  531. 

Rings,  XX.  560. 

Jewelry,  XIII.  675. 

Gems,  X.  136;  XX.  560. 

Diamonds,  VII.  162. 

Laces,  XIV.  183. 

Parasols,  XXIII.  722. 

Sachets — perfumes,  XVIII.  527. 

MUSIC. 
See  the  chapter  in  this  GUIDE  entitled,  The  Musician. 

ART. 

See  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Artist. 

INDOOR  AMUSEMENTS. 
Billiards,  III.  674. 
Chess.  V.  592 ;  sup.  778. 
Checkers,  VII.  444. 
Dice,  sup.  1042. 
Backgammon,  III.  197. 

Games  at  Cards:  Euchre,  VIII.  654;  poker,  XIX. 
282;  whist,  XXIV.  543,  sup.  3139;  cribbage,  VI.  575; 


THE   HOME-MAKER.  455 

casino,  sup.  717;  bezique,  III.  623  ;  loo,  XV.  I  ;  picquet, 
XIX.  114;  ecarte,  VII.  620 ;  Napoleon,  XVII.  229;  faro, 
sup.  1248;  baccarat,  sup.  308;  seven-up,  sup.  2693. 

Riddles,  XX.  549. 

Charades,  V.  398. 

White  magic,  XIV.  414;  XV.  207. 

Dancing,  VI.  798-801;  jig,  VI.  799;  hornpipe,  XII. 
171  ;  waltz,  VI.  799;  schottische,  VI.  800; -reel,  VI.  801  ; 
Spanish  bolero,  sup.  511  ;  fandango,  sup.  1242. 

Callisthenics,  XL  350. 

OUTDOOR  AMUSEMENTS. 

Tennis,  XXIII.  179,  181. 

Croquet,  VI.  608. 

Golf,  X.  765. 

Cricket,  VI.  578. 

Football,  sup.  1301  ;  IX.  367. 

Polo,  XIX.  549. 

Baseball,  sup.  327. 

Horsemanship,  XII.  195. 
Fox-hunting,  VII.  329;  XII.  314. 
Shooting,  XXI.  832. 
Archery,  II.  371. 
Fishing,  II.  32. 
Bicycling,  sup.  458,  461. 
Skating,  XXII.  104. 
Swimming,  XXII.  768. 
Rowing,  XX.  619. 
Canoeing,  IV.  811. 
Yachting,  XXIV.  722-725. 

PASTIMES. 

Autograph  collecting,  III.  141. 
Stamp  collecting,  XIX.  588. 


456  GUIDE   TO   THE   BRITANNICA. 

Crocheting,  XIV.  127. 

Amateur  photography,  sup.  2370. 

Hammered  metal-work,  XVI.  72. 

Embroidery,  VIII.  160. 

Decalcomania,  sup.  1007. 

Ceramics,  XIX.  600. 

Reading  (see  the  chapter  entitled,  The  Bookman). 

Cigars,  V.  776;   XXIII.  426. 
Wine,  XXIV.  601. 
Coffee,  VI.  1 10. 
Tea,  XXIII.  101. 

Clubs,  sup.  837  ;  VI.  38. 
Women's  clubs,  sup.  838. 


INDEX. 


Acoustics,  137,  139. 

Actor,  The,  441. 

Adventurers,  28. 

Agriculture,  231. 

Alchemy,  170. 

Algebra,  132. 

Almanacs,  95. 

American  citizen,  The,  281. 

American  history,  59;  literature, 
73;  politics,  282;  colleges,  402- 
406. 

Amusements,  50,  52,  454. 

Ancient  art,  146. 

Ancient  history,  62. 

Ancient  literature,  78. 

Animals,  46,  100. 

Antiquities,  144. 

Apothecary,  The,  356. 

Archaeology,  144. 

Archery,  51. 

Architect,  the,  215. 

Arithmetic,  131. 

Arms  and  armor,  274. 

Artist,  The,  43,  429. 

Aryan  languages,  86. 

Astrology,  91,  171. 

Astronomy,  90. 

Athletic  games,  53. 

Authors,  43. 

Ball,  Games  of,  50. 

Balloons,  198. 

Banker,  The,  311. 

Banks  and  banking,  308,  314. 

Battles,  277. 

Bible — History,  156  ;  geography, 
159;  circulation,  etc.,  379. 

Bible  student,  The,  156. 

Bicycling,  53 

Biographies  .  adventurers,  28  ;  al- 
chemists, 171;  Americans,  great, 
32  ;  American  writers,  73  ;  anti- 
slavery  leaders,  385  ;  astrolo- 
gists,  171;  astronomers,  91;  au- 
thors, 73,  75;  bankers,  317;  Bible 


characters,  158  ;  botanists,  108  ; 
chemists,  359;  colonists,  31;  de- 
termination, men  of,  39 ;  dili- 
gence, men  of,  38;  discoverers, 
28  ;  dramatists,  443  ;  electri- 
cians, 202;  energy,  men  of,  40; 
Englishmen,  great,  70  ;  English 
writers,  75;  financiers,  317;  ge- 
ologists, 362  ;  illustrators,  436  ; 
integrity,  men  of,  41  ;  inventors, 
208;  journalists,  427;  kings,  27; 
lawyers,  331  ;  librarians,  397 ; 
logicians,  153  ;  mathematicians, 
I3I>  *33  I  merchants,  324  ;  mis- 
sionaries, 382  ;  musicians,  440  ; 
noble  motives,  men  of,  43  ;  ora- 
tors, 389;  painters,  429;  patience, 
men  of,  40  ;  patriots,  286  ;  phil- 
anthropists, 383  ;  philosophers, 
149  ;  physicians,  347  ;  political 
economists,  310;  preachers,  374; 
precision,  men  of,  42  ;  presi- 
dents, 33  ;  printers,  423;  prison- 
ers' friends,  384  ;  reformers, 
386  ;  psychologists,  408  ;  religi- 
ous leaders,  376  ;  scientists,  99  ; 
sculptors,  431;  social  reformers, 
387 ;  soldiers,  281  ;  statesmen, 
286  ;  teachers,  400  ;  temperance 
advocates,  387;  theologians,  374; 
warriors,  27;  woman  suffragists, 
386;  young  men,  great,  43. 

Biography,  Home  readings  in,   37. 

Biology,  General  course  of  read- 
ing in,  96  ;  great  biologists,  99  ; 
miscellaneous  topics  in,  106. 

Birds,  105.  ' 

Blacksmith,  The,  193. 

Boatman,  The,  53. 

Bookish  subjects,  395. 

Bookkeeper,  The,  292,  300. 

Bookman,  The,  392. 

Books  and  libraries,  84. 

Books,  Fifty  great,  392. 


457 


458 


INDEX. 


Books  for  lawyers,  341. 

Books  of  the  Bible,  157. 

Bookseller,  The,  425. 

Botany,  108.     See  Plants. 

Boys  and  girls,  To  the,  23. 

Brewer,  The,  390. 

Brick-layer,  The,  220. 

Brickmaker,  The,  187. 

Bridges,  225,  450. 

Builder,  The,  220,  450. 

Buildings,  Famous,  218. 

Burial  customs,  177. 

Butcher,  The,  253. 

Calendars,  95. 

Canals,  226,  322. 

Carpenter,  The,  192,  222. 

Carrier,  The  public,  322. 

Ceramic  art,  432. 

Chemist,  The,  359. 

Christianity,  370. 

Christian  legends,  168. 

Church  history,  373;  government, 

378. 

Civil  service,  288. 
Classification  in   zoology,    103  ;  in 

botany,  109. 
Clerk-copyist,  The,  292. 
Clerk,  The,  custom-house,  300. 
Climate,  127. 
Colleges,  402-406. 
Clothier,  The,  454. 
Composer,  The  musical,  439. 
Cooperation,  238,  309,  328. 
Criminal,  The,  344. 
Curious  customs,  177. 
Curious  inventions,  176. 
Curious  people,  178. 
Curious  races,  144. 
Curious  things,  25. 
Curious  things  in  the  sea,  267. 
Custom-house  service,  299. 
Dairyman,  The,  252. 
Death  and  burial,  177. 
Debater,  The,  389. 
Desultory  reader's  course,  175. 
Detective,  The  police,  305. 
Discoverers,  28,  31. 
Divorce,  144,  332. 
Draftsman,  The,  295. 
Drama,  The,  84  ;  history  of,  441, 
Dramatist,  The,  441. 
Drawing,  436. 
Dress,  454. 


Druggist,  The,  356. 

Dynamics,  200. 

Education,  399  ;  theories  of,   409. 

Electrician,  The,  201. 

Electric  machinery,  204. 

Emergencies,  453. 

Encyclopaedia,  What  it  is,  24. 

Engineer,  The,  224 ;  steam  en- 
gineer, 296. 

English  drama,  442;  history,  67  ; 
legends,  168;  literature,  75. 

Engraver,  The,  435. 

Essays,  Subjects  for,  414. 

Ethics,  148. 

Ethnology,  143. 

Evil  spirits,  172. 

Explanations  of  references,  17. 

Expressman,  The,  322. 

Fabled  animals,  48. 

Fables,  169. 

Fairy  stories,  169. 

Farmer,  The,  231. 

Farmer,  The  Indian,  299. 

Fiction,  History  of,  83. 

Financier,  The,  311,  317. 

Fireman,  The,  305. 

Fisherman,  The,  52,  102,  266. 

Fish  culturist,  The,  296. 

Fishes,  102,  104. 

Florist,  The,  241. 

Flowers.  See  Botany  and  Gardener. 

Foods,  451. 

Forestry,  247. 

Fortification,  227. 

Free  trade,  310,  321. 

French  language,  86;  literature,  82. 

Fruit-grower,  The,  244,  279. 

Funeral  director,  The,  177. 

Furnishing,  451. 

Games,    Outdoor,  50;    indoor,   52. 

Gardener,  The,  240. 

Geography — History  of,  112;  maps 
in  the  Britannica,  115;  geograph- 
ical topics,  124 ;  geography  of 
United  States,  126.' 

Geologist,  The,  260. 

Geometry,  132. 

German  language, 87;  literature, 82. 

Girls,  To  the  boys  and,  23. 

Glass-maker,  The,   186. 

Glazier,  The,  223. 

Goldsmith,  The,  185. 

Government,  281. 


INDEX. 


459 


Grammar,  412. 

Greek  drama,  442  ;  history,  64  ; 
language,  86  ;  literature,  78  ; 
mythology,  163. 

Grocer,  The,  320. 

Gymnastics,  55. 

Harbors,  226. 

Health  inspector,  The,  304. 

Heat,  213. 

Hebrew  language, 88;  literature, 8r. 

Heroes,  26. 

History  :  Home  readings  in,  30  ; 
naval  history,  33  ;  romance  of, 
34;  three  courses  of  reading  in, 
59  ;  American,  59  ;  Ancient,  62; 
Greek,  64;  Roman,  35,  65;  Mod- 
ern, 66. 

How  to  do  things,  28. 

Home-maker,  The,  450. 

Huntsman,  The,  53. 

Hydromechanics,  136,  197. 

Ichthyology,  104. 

Illustrator,  The,  436. 

Imaginary  beings,  174. 

Indian  teacher,  297  ;  physician, 
299  ;  farmer,  299. 

Index  volume,  How  to  use  the,  18. 

Insurance  agent,  The,  326. 

International  law,  294. 

Inventions,   Famous,  210. 

Inventor,  The,  207. 

Israelites,  Journey  of  the,  160. 

Italian  language,  86;  literature,  82. 

Jeweler,  The,  454.  See  Mineralo- 
gist. 

Journalist,  The,  426. 

Justice,  Administration  of,  334. 

Kings  and  warriors,  27. 

Knighthood,  35. 

Labor  and  capital,  229. 

Laborer,  The,  228,  309. 

Labor  organizations,  230. 

Language,  History  of,  85. 

Latin  language,  86;  literature,   80. 

Lawyer,  The,  329. 

Leather-worker,  The,  194. 

Lecturer,  The,  390. 

Legends,  165. 

Letter-carrier,  The,  301. 

Librarian,  The,  305. 

Libraries,  84,  396. 

Light-houses,  226. 

Liquor-dealer,  The,  390. 


Literature — Five  courses  of  read- 
ing in,  72;  American,  73;  Eng- 
lish, 75  ;  Greek,  78;  Roman,  80; 
Hebrew,  81  ;  French,  82  ;  four- 
teen great  literatures,  81  ;  fic- 
tion, 83  ;  the  drama,  84,  441  ; 
poetry,  84. 

Logic,  152. 

Lumbering,  248. 

Machinist,  The,  196. 

Magic,  1 71. 

Magistrate,  The,  343. 

Magnetism,  140,   205. 

Mail-clerk,  The  railway,  297. 

Man,  Readings  in  study  of,  141. 

Manufacturer,  The,  181. 

Manufacturing  centres,  188. 

Maps  in  the  Britannica,  115. 

Marriage,  144. 

Mason,  The,  220. 

Mathematics,  130. 

Meat  inspector,  The,  253,  295. 

Mechanic,  The,  190. 

Mechanics,  Laws  of,  199,  211. 

Medical  inspector,  The,  305. 

Medicine,  346. 

Merchant,  The,  320. 

Metal-worker,  The,  193;  art  metal- 
work,  433. 

Metaphysic,  150. 

Meteorology,  127. 

Milkman,  The,  252. 

Miner,  The,  256. 

Mineralogist,  The,  363. 

Mineral  manufactures,  184. 

Minerals,  257. 

Missionary,  The,  382. 

Money,  History  of,  311. 

Municipal  service,  The,  303. 

Musician,  The,  43,  437. 

Mutual-benefit  societies,  328. 

Mythology,  Readings  in,  163. 

Natural  history,  46. 

Natural  philosophy,  135. 

Navigator,  .The,  265. 

Navy,  The,  33,  268. 

Necromancy,  171. 

Norse  mythology,  164. 

Occult  sciences,  170. 

Ocean  life,  102. 

Optics,  137,  140. 

Oratory,  388. 

Ornithology,  105. 


460 


INDEX. 


Painter,  The,  429. 

Paper-maker,  The,  195. 

Parks,  250. 

Parliamentary  rules,  389. 

Pastimes,  50,  52,  455. 

Paul,  Journeys  of,  161. 

Pauperism,  309. 

Pension  examiner,  The,  293. 

Pharmacist,  The,  356. 

Philanthropist,  The,  381. 

Philology,  85. 

Philosophers,  43. 

Philosophy,  Readings  in,  148. 

Photographer,  The,  434. 

Physician,  The,  299,  346. 

Physics,  Readings  in,  135. 

Plants,  108,  240,  247,  250. 

Plasterer,  The,  223. 

Plumber,  The,  222. 

Pneumatics,  137,  197. 

Policeman,  The,  305,  343. 

Political  economist,  The,  307. 

Politics,  American,  283. 

Population,  308. 

Post-office  service,  300. 

Potter,  The,  186,  432. 

Pottery,  432. 

Poultryman,  The,  254. 

Precious  metals,  185. 

Printer,  The,  301,  423. 

Prisoners'  friends,  384. 

Psychology,  151,  407. 

Preacher,  The,  366. 

Publisher,  The,  425. 

Quarryman,  The,  256. 

Races  of  men,  141. 

Railroad-man,  The,  270. 

Religions,  367. 

Reptiles,  102. 

Revenue  service,  The,  302. 

Rhetoric,  411. 

Roads,  226. 

Roman  history,  65  ;  language,  86  ; 

literature,  80. 
Rome,  Stories  of,  35. 
Rowing,  53. 
Sailor,  The,  263. 
Schoolmaster,  The,  400. 
Schools,  Agricultural,  238. 
Science,  Home  readings  in,  46. 
Sculptor,  The,  431. 
Seaman,  The,  263. 
Semitic  languages,  88. 


Ships,  34,  264. 

Shoemaker,  The,  187,  194. 

Slater,  The,  222. 

Slavery,  385. 

Social  lite,  454. 

Sociology,  154. 

Soldier,  The,  273. 

Speaker,  The  public,  388. 

Special  schools,  402,  406. 

Spinner,  The,  182. 

Spiritualism,  173. 

Steam  engine,  196. 

Stenographer,  The,  421. 

Stock-raiser,  The,  251. 

Stone-cutter,  The,  195,  221. 

Sun  worship,  92. 

Supernatural,  Readings  in  the,  170. 

Surgeon,  The,  350. 

Surveyor,  The,  224. 

Tanner,  The,  194 

Tariff,  310. 

Taxation,  308. 

Teacher,  The,  398. 

Teacher,    The,    in  Indian  schools, 

297. 

Temperance,  387,  390. 
Textile  products,  182. 
Theatre,  The,  447. 
Theologian,  The.  366. 
Trader,  The,  320. 
Transportation,  322. 
Trigonometry,  132. 
Truck-farmer,  The,  242. 
Typewriter,  The,  293,  421. 
Universities,  401-406. 
Vintner,  The,  245. 
Wages,  229. 
Wars,  276. 
Waterworks,  225. 
Wealth  and  currency,  308. 
Weather  bureau,  128,  294. 
Weaver,  The,  182. 
Weight  and  motion,  139. 
Winds,  128. 
Witchcraft,  172. 
Woman  suffrage,  386. 
Woman's  household  work,  450. 
Wrood-carving,  434. 
Woodsman,  The,  247. 
Wood-worker,  The,  192. 
Writer,  The,  410. 
Zoology,  46,  98. 


14  DAY  USE 

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